The Pope at War, page 60
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 8
“Pio XII, Padre dei popoli, invoca da Dio ‘una pace giusta, onorevole e duratura,’ ” AR, June 4, 1940, p. 1. The Italian ambassador, who sent Ciano a copy of the speech, noted that the pope had studiously avoided any “polemical” political comments. Indeed, he told Ciano, the pope had indicated sympathy for the Italian position. He pointed in particular to the pope’s citation of Saint Augustine’s phrase, bellum geritur, ut pax acquiratur (war is waged for peace to be obtained), which, he remarked, “seems significant in this regard to me and almost serves as a bridge between the Christian concept of peace, which the Pope as pope can hardly fail to preach and to wish for, and the realistic, current necessities of war.” Attolico to Ciano, June 2, 1940, tel. 1602/710, ASDMAE, APSS, b. 48.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 9
Guariglia to Ciano, May 30, 1940, tel. 3480, ASDMAE, APSS, b. 49; Charles-Roux conversation with Guariglia, May 1940, MAEC, Papiers Chauvel, vol. 121; “Il nuovo Ambasciatore di Francia,” OR, June 10, 1940, p. 2; Chassard 2015, p. 11; Osborne annual report for 1940, Osborne to Eden, November 13, 1941, NAK, R 10496/30/507, pp. 7–8.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 10
D’Ormesson report on his June 9 audience with the pope, June 11, 1940, MAEC, Guerre Vichy, 544; Chassard 2015, pp. 36–37.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 11
Montini, June 12, 1940, AAV, Segr. Stato, 1940, Stato Città Vaticano, posiz. 63, ff. 73r–74r.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 12
Montini, June 12, 1940, AAV, Segr. Stato, 1940, Stato Città Vaticano, posiz. 63, ff. 78r–79v.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 13
The pope’s instructions were recorded in a handwritten memo by Montini, June 12, 1940, AAV, Segr. Stato, 1940, Stato Città Vaticano, b. 63, ff. 75r–76r.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 14
Attolico to Ciano, June 13, 1940, n. 1752, ASDMAE, AISS, b. 113.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 15
R. Manzini, “L’ora delL’Italia,” and “Dovere,” AI, June 11, 1940, p. 1; “Il Card. Arcivescovo di Bologna invita il popolo alla preghiera,” AI, June 12, 1940, p. 2.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 16
“La dichiarazione di guerra dell’Italia alla Francia e alla Gran Bretagna,” OR, June 12, 1940, p. 1; Visani 2007, p. 127; d’Ormesson to French Foreign Ministry, June 13, 1940, MAEN, RSS 576, PO/1, 1183.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 17
Later in the war another French ambassador to the Holy See would likewise note that the pope had no patience for Tisserant, adding that there was a deep incompatibility between the pope’s Roman, sensitive, diplomatic nature and the “rough son of the Lorraine.” More typical of the cardinals of the Vatican was Nicola Canali, the leading figure of the three cardinals responsible for the administration of Vatican City. The British envoy described him as “a feared and disliked autocrat,” adding that “he is said to be pious and just, but is hard and obstinate.” D’Ormesson went to see the corpulent and querulous Canali shortly after moving in. “Poor Italy!” said the cardinal in response to the ambassador’s complaints about Mussolini, but his words were accompanied by no sign of actual indignation. “Moreover,” added d’Ormesson, “Cardinal Canali’s sympathies for the Fascist regime are notorious.” D’Ormesson to French Foreign Ministry, June 11, 1940, MAEN, RSS 576, PO/1, 1183; Fouilloux 2011, pp. 292–93; d’Ormesson to French Foreign Ministry, June 13, 1940, MAEN, RSS 576, PO/1, 1183; Osborne to Foreign Office, London, June 6, 1946, NAK, FO 371, 60812, ZM 1993, 1946; Chadwick 1986, p. 125; Chassard 2015, pp. 62, 168; Attolico to Foreign Ministry, December 9, 1940, ASDMAE, AISS, b. 164; Baudrillart 1998, p. 786, diary entry for January 10, 1941. For descriptions of police efforts to follow Tisserant on his movements through Rome, see ACS, MIFP, serie B, b. 25.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 18
Not surprisingly, perhaps, the German police intercepted Tisserant’s letter, and it worked its way up to the head of the German police, Reinhard Heydrich. He in turn sent a copy to Rome, where the Italian police chief brought it directly to Mussolini. Chenaux 2003, p. 250; Fouilloux 2011, pp. 293–94; Divisione Polizia Politica, October 6, 1940, n. 500.28246, ACS, MIFP, Serie-B, b. 25.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 19
Farinacci to Mussolini, June 12, 1940, ACS, MI, MAT, b. 263. The informant also warned about another French prelate in the Vatican, Mons. René Fontenelle, whom he dubbed “a French spy.” He, too, said the informant, regularly left Vatican City undisturbed. It was crucial, the informant concluded, that the Regime establish “extremely rigorous services of vigilance” outside the Vatican walls. “To neglect this,” he remarked, “could be very costly!”
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 20
D’Ormesson to French Foreign Ministry, June 13, 1940, MAEN, RSS 576, PO/1, 1183. Farinacci wrote his letter, addressed to Mussolini (as “Caro Presidente”) on his stationery as President of the Legislative Commission of Justice of the Camera dei Fasci e delle Corporazioni, datelined Rome, June 12, 1940, ACS, MI, MAT, b. 263. That Bocchini did not appreciate Farinacci’s implication that he was not doing his job is clear from the sarcastic, handwritten note scribbled at the bottom of the typed informant report: “But these world saviors must think that we are sleeping!”
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 21
Bishop Colli’s call was featured in many publications, including “Il patriottico appello dell’ACI,” AR, June 14, 1940, p. 1; “Un nobilissimo appello del Direttore Generale dell’ACI,” L’Italia, June 14, 1940, p. 2; “Patriottico appello dell’ACI,” AI, June 14, 1940, p. 2; “Il clero italiano per la vittoria delle nostre armi,” PI, June 14, 1940. The letter by Piero Panighi, national president of Catholic Men, appeared with the same title, “I doveri verso la Patria in armi,” in both AR (June 23, p. 2) and AI (June 25, p. 2) and was sent to the Foreign Ministry on June 23 by Attolico’s Vatican embassy (ASDMAE, AISS, b. 164). Father Giuseppe Borghino, national vice director of Catholic Action, wrote to Montini to give him the welcome news that Alfieri, then Italian ambassador to Germany, had written directly to Monsignor Colli to congratulate him on his public appeal for support of the war. July 6, 1940, AAV, Segr. Stato, 1940, Associazioni Cattoliche, posiz. 96, ff. 2r–4r.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 22
“As soon as this [war] was declared,” wrote Attolico, “the Italian Episcopate and clergy rushed to be among the first to remind the faithful of their duty to serve the Fatherland generously and to express their wish for Italy’s victory and greater fortune. All the bishops sent out instructions for the conduct the parish priests and other priests would have to follow.” Among these were those from the bishop of La Spezia. Tailoring his message to his maritime diocese, he wrote, “Italy, guided by the always victorious Emperor King and by the Duce, creator of its present greatness, is fighting for the freedom of its sea.” The message that the bishop of Acqui addressed to his clergy and members of his diocese reminded them that the Duce had concluded his declaration of war with the watchword “Victory…to finally give a long period of peace and justice to Italy, to Europe, to the world,” while the king had urged that once again “the victory of our glorious armies be assured.” The bishop concluded, “God grant that these wishes which are the wishes of all Italians be fulfilled.” The report of the Italian embassy, containing reports of several calls for support of the war on the part of Italy’s episcopate, dated June 15, 1940, is at ASDMAE, AISS, b. 164.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 23
Ambassador Attolico sent Ciano newspaper clippings about Gemelli’s speech. Attolico to Ciano, June 21, 1940, n. 1838/814, ASDMAE, AISS, b. 164. Among the many Catholic and Fascist papers giving major coverage to Gemelli’s speech, see “Patriottico appello di Padre Gemelli,” PI, June 19, 1940; “Un nobile appello di Padre Gemelli ai professori e studenti dell’Università Cattolica,” AI, June 20, 1940, p. 2; “Un nobile appello di Padre Gemelli,” L’Italia, June 19, 1940, p. 3.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 24
Chapter 16: Surveillance
Valeri, Bordeaux, to Maglione, June 15, 1940; Tardini notes, June 18, 1940; Maglione to Valeri, June 18, 1940, ADSS, vol. 1, nn. 344, 345, 346. My account of the military operations is based largely on Gooch 2020, pp. 96–104. The confusion among Italy’s top generals in the first days of the war is examined in light of General Rodolfo Graziani’s diary entries by Canali 2021.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 1
D’Ormesson to French Foreign Ministry, June 23, 1940, n. 484, MAEC, Guerre Vichy, 461.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 2
Record of Hitler-Mussolini conversation, Munich, June 18, 1940, DGFP, series D, vol. 9, n. 479; Goeschel 2018, p. 187.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 3
Di Rienzo 2018, p. 330; Phillips 1952, pp. 283–84; “Elenco delle vittime dell’incursione aerea su Palermo,” PI, June 27, 1940, p. 3.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 4
D’Ormesson to French foreign minister, June 11, 1940, MAEC, Guerre Vichy, 461. In relaying this news to the Italian ambassador, Cardinal Maglione told him the pope would renew his plea, but it was important that his request not seem to be made in collaboration with the Italian authorities. Rather, he said, it must “retain the mark of being entirely a Vatican initiative.” Attolico to Ciano, June 11 and 18, 1940, tel. 2837, ASDMAE, Gab., b. 1192, UC-76, fasc. 1. The underlining is in the original. Also see Osborne’s annual report to London for 1940, NAK, Osborne to Eden, November 13, 1941, NAK, R 10496/30/507, pp. 4–5.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 5
“With this most recent, high demonstration by the Sovereign Pontiff,” concluded the ambassador in reporting the pope’s words, “one can regard the Vatican as having now placed itself—on the patriotic and national plane—perfectly in line.” Attolico to Ciano, June 21, 1940, n. 1838/814, ASDMAE, AISS, b. 164.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 6
D’Ormesson to French Foreign Ministry, June 23, 1940, MAEC, Guerre Vichy, 461; Chassard 2015, p. 45.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 7
Osborne’s annual report for 1940, Osborne to Eden, November 13, 1941, NAK, R 10496/30/507, p. 1.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 8
A series of Vatican secretary of state documents dealing with the papal plea is found at ADSS, vol. 1, nn. 366–78; Halifax to Osborne, July 3, 1940, NAK, FO 380/61, n. 62, 87/6/40; Conway 1973, p. 167; Mons. William Godfrey to Halifax, n.d., Osborne to Eden, November 13, 1941, NAK, R 10496/30/507, pp. 3–4. For Osborne’s account of his long discussion with the pope on July 1 about his call for a peace conference, see NAK, FO 380/46, and Osborne’s annual report for 1940, Osborne to Eden, November 13, 1941, NAK, R 10496/30/507, p. 4.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 9
Gooch 2020, pp. 104–7.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 10
Chadwick (1986, p. 137) makes this point.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 11
Italian embassy to Holy See, memo, July 1, 1940, ASDMAE, AISS, b. 164. Gemelli’s article was likewise sent by the Italian embassy to the Foreign Ministry on July 1 and is found in the same archival file.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 12
Attolico reported the Civiltà Cattolica article supporting the war in a July 1, 1940, letter to Ciano, n. 1935/862, ASDMAE, AISS, b. 164. Among the front-page stories devoted to it in the daily Catholic press see: “Una nazione in guerra,” AR, July 3, 1940, p. 1; “La nazione in Guerra. Una nota della Civiltà Cattolica,” AI, July 3, 1940, p. 1.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 13
Nota del Commissario di Borgo al Questore di Roma, July 3, 1940, ACS, DAGRA, A5G, IIGM, b. 29.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 14
Attolico to Ciano, July 2, 1940, n. 1943/877, ASDMAE, AISS, b. 194.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 15
D’Ormesson to French Foreign Ministry, July 9, 1940, MAEC, Guerre Vichy, 555.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 16
D’Ormesson’s final report, October 28, 1940, MAEC, Guerre Vichy, 550; Bérard to Pétain, February 2, 1942, MAEC, Guerre Vichy, 551.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 17
Osborne to Halifax, July 17, 1940, NAK, FO 371, 24962, 42–44.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 18
D’Ormesson to French Foreign Ministry, July 9, 1940, MAEC, Guerre Vichy, 553.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 19
Bastianini 2005, p. 286; Ciano 1980, pp. 450–51, diary entries for July 5–10, 1940.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 20
Returning to the theme at the beginning of August, d’Ormesson reported that the pope could not understand how the French had caved in so quickly in the face of the German attack and thought the French troops had simply turned and run. “In effect,” wrote the French ambassador, “they consider us as a nation that is infinitely sicker than our worst adversaries suppose.” D’Ormesson to Charles-Roux, August 1, 1940, MAEC, Guerre Vichy, 551.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 21
D’Ormesson to French Foreign Ministry, July 14, 1940, MAEC, Guerre Vichy, 547; d’Ormesson to French Foreign Ministry, July 18, 1940, MAEC, Guerre Vichy, 553.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 22
Informativa da Roma, July 7, 1940, ACS, MCPG, b. 164.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 23
Knowing of the suspicion with which the diplomats from the hostile countries now lodged in Vatican City were viewed, the Vatican authorities arranged for a police agent to stand guard outside their residence and, the French ambassador was convinced, immediately reported their movements and visitors to the Italian police. The Vatican had also adopted its own censorship of the diplomats’ correspondence. It wanted to do all it could, explained d’Ormesson, to avoid upsetting the Italian authorities. D’Ormesson to French Foreign Ministry, July 21, 1940, MAEC, Guerre Vichy, 550; d’Ormesson to French Foreign Ministry, July 24, 1940, MAEC, Guerre Vichy, 547.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 24
It was likewise notable, the ambassador added, that “the Holy See’s organ is publicizing Father Gemelli’s action and, in a certain way, extolling it.” Attolico to Ciano, July 24, 1940, n. 2147/968, ASDMAE, AISS, b. 113. Three days later, no doubt further pleasing the Italian ambassador, the Vatican paper published a story that had been eagerly covered the previous day by Mussolini’s newspaper, detailing the visit that the archbishop of Milan had made to rooms set up by the Fascist Party for soldiers in transit at Milan’s train station. “The cardinal,” reported L’Osservatore Romano, was “received by the Federal Secretary [of the Fascist Party]…by the representative of the women’s Fascist organization…by a group of Fascist women and by numerous army officers.” He distributed prayer books for the soldiers and handed each a religious medallion. “Il Cardinale Schuster visita il posto di ristoro per i soldati,” OR, July 27, 1940, p. 4; “Il Cardinale fra i militari del posto di ristoro alla Stazione Centrale,” PI, July 26, 1940, p. 2.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 25
Attolico to Bocchini, June 28, 1940, and Bocchini to Attolico, July 3, 1940, ACS, DAGR, A5G, IIGM, b. 72; De Felice 1996a, pp. 464–66. Attolico was also at the time urging Ciano to be sure the police kept a close eye on all the movements of L’Osservatore Romano director Giuseppe Dalla Torre, who, he reported, was repeatedly meeting with the British envoy D’Arcy Osborne. Attolico to Ciano, July 30, 1940, tel. 2201/996, ASDMAE, AISS, b. 194.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 26
Montini to Dalla Torre, August 19, 1940, AAV, Segr. Stato, 1940, Pubblicazioni, posiz. 730, f. 5r. Dalla Torre’s notice to his staff is found at f. 3r.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 27
D’Ormesson offered much the same view of the pope’s thinking in his August 12 report to the French Foreign Ministry (MAEC, Guerre Vichy, 549). On the bombing of Britain, see Rauscher 2004, pp. 368–69; Roberts 2018, p. 588. It was in August as well that Britain began sending its warplanes to bomb Germany, beginning with an attack on Berlin on August 25. Herbert 2019, p. 340.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 28
D’Ormesson to French Foreign Ministry, August 23, 1940, MAEC, Guerre Vichy, 553; d’Ormesson to Baudouin, minister of foreign affairs, MAEC, Guerre Vichy, 545. The ellipses are in the original.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 29
L.M., “Il Nuovo ordine europeo,” L’Italia, August 28, 1940, p. 1.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 30
Chapter 17: The Feckless Ally
The text of the pope’s speech was published on the front page of Rome’s L’Avvenire. “L’Apostolica orazione di S.S. Pio XII,” AR, September 5, 1940, as well as on the first page of that day’s OR:“Luminose e fondamentali direttive del Sommo Pontefice Pio XII ai collaboratori dell’Apostolato Gerarchico per il trionfo del Regno di Cristo.” Attolico enthusiastically reported the pope’s remarks to Ciano that same day. The Fascist newspapers added their praise, offering excerpts from the pope’s remarks. Even Farinacci praised the speech, albeit faulting the pontiff for neglecting to mention the “anti-Jewish struggle.” When the French ambassador came to the Vatican to complain about the way the Fascist press was trumpeting the pope’s words, an exasperated Monsignor Tardini replied that all that the pope had done was to restate long-standing church doctrine. That defense, unsurprisingly, found little favor in Britain, then under heavy Axis bombardment. The British press did nothing to conceal its hostility, offering such titles to its stories as “Pope’s Advice to Catholics: Die for Country.” Attolico to Ciano, September 4, 1940, tel. 2206/1134, ASDMAE, APSS, b. 48; d’Ormesson to French Foreign Ministry, September 7, 1940, MAEC, Guerre Vichy, 559; Roberto Farinacci, “Verrà giorno…,” RF, September 6, 1940, p. 1; Roberts 2018, p. 592; d’Ormesson to French Foreign Ministry, September 7, 1940, MAEC, Guerre Vichy, 461. In the London Foreign Office, a typed report on the pope’s speech bears a handwritten comment from one of the staff: “The Vatican, au fond, is Italian & not international.” NAK, FO 371, 24962[A].
