The Pope at War, page 55
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Tacchi Venturi to Tardini, June 7, 1939, ARSI, Fondo Tacchi Venturi, Miscellanea, b. 11, fasc. 33, carte non numerate.
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Chapter 5: “Please Do Not Talk to Me About Jews”
Chadwick 1986, pp. 13–15, 125, 128; Tittmann 2004, p. 98; Lammers 1971, pp. 69, 77–78; French embassy to the Holy See to French Foreign Ministry, October 1943, MAEN, RSS 576, PO/1, 1183.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 1
Tardini notes, July 4, 1939, ADSS, vol. 1, n. 197; Pignatti to Ciano, July 3, 1939, DDI, series 8, vol. 12, n. 442. A few days later, on the pope’s orders, Maglione called Pignatti in again to repeat the warning: both England and France were “absolutely decided to declare war on Germany” should it attack Danzig. Maglione notes, July 7, 1939, ADSS, vol. 1, n. 200; Pignatti to Ciano, July 7, 1939, DDI, series 8, vol. 12, n. 500.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 2
Biddle, Warsaw, to FDR, June 20, 1939, FDR Library, psfa 449, pp. 88–94; Mons. Valeri, Paris, to Maglione, June 20 and 21, 1939, ADSS, vol. 1, nn. 66, 68.
What was especially upsetting to Pius XII about these signs of his declining popularity was how little he seemed to be accomplishing in his attempts to reach an understanding with the Nazi authorities. He had remained publicly silent while Germany annexed Austria and then invaded Czechoslovakia, yet the German government continued its efforts to weaken the church. Indeed, things were only getting worse. Catholic schools were being closed, church property seized, and priests harassed if they showed insufficient support for the Nazi regime. The pope sent Cardinal Maglione to issue a warning to Italy’s ambassador. If the situation in Germany did not improve soon, he would have to speak out. It would be one of the first of a long line of toothless threats. Mussolini’s ambassador himself was sympathetic and shared the pope’s dismay at the Germans’ failure to follow the Fascist path to conciliation with the church. “The Holy Father,” he said, “knew that [Ciano] had repeatedly intervened in Berlin to advise moderation and advise reaching an agreement with the Holy See.” Pignatti to Ciano, July 5, 1939, DDI, series 8, vol. 12, n. 478.
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On July 3, 1933, Von Papen, then vice chancellor of the German Reich who would soon sign the concordat with Pacelli, had sent a telegram to Hitler from Rome: “Mussolini received me today and asked me in detail about the state of the negotiations for the Concordat. He instructed me to tell the Chancellor that, in his view, making the Vatican conclude a Concordat would be an enormous benefit for Germany in its current isolated situation. Germany would win the favor of global opinion. Mussolini concluded by saying: ‘I entreat you not to depart before the Concordat has reached port.’ ” PAAA, GRk, R72095, 07.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 4
Charles-Roux report, July 6, 1939, to Paris on his audience the previous day with the pope, MAEC, Papiers Duparc, ff. 68–72.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 5
“Il Sant’Uffizio revoca la proibizione della lettura dell’Action Française,” AI, July 16, 1939, p. 2; Pignatti to Ciano, July 17, 1939, tel. 2341/733, ASDMAE, APSS, b. 47. Mussolini was getting other encouraging news about the new pope, learning of the remarks the papal nuncio in Switzerland had made after his recent visit to the Vatican. Following Pius XII’s ascension to the papacy, observed the nuncio, the atmosphere there was completely changed. He had talked with the pope, who spoke “with great sympathy for Fascism and with sincere admiration for the Duce.” The pope explained that he had completely reorganized Catholic Action to prevent it from creating any further conflict with the government. The pope had also said he was eager to arrive at an agreement with the Führer. Referring to Hitler’s visit to Italy in May 1938, the pope told the nuncio that “he had tried in vain to prevent his predecessor from protesting against the exhibition of the swastika in Rome.” Attilio Tamaro, Bern, to Ciano, July 21, 1939, tel. 3461/1236, ASDMAE, APSS, b. 43.
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“Colloquio con Rev.mo Padre Tacchi Venturi, May 11, 1939,” ASRS, AA.EE.SS., Pio XII, Asterisco Italia, posiz. 1054*, ff. 248–49. In August, Father Tacchi Venturi successfully urged Pius XII to make two appeals on behalf of baptized Jews, albeit not publicly. The first regarded the government decision, in ejecting all Jewish children from the country’s public schools, to apply the ban to children of Jewish parents who had been baptized after October 1938. The second regarded the law prohibiting Catholics who were considered to be “of Jewish race,” that is, converts or children of converts, from marrying those of “Aryan race,” that is, Catholics not descended from Jews. Montini notes, August 12, 1939, ADSS, vol. 6, n. 49; Maglione to Borgongini Duca, August 23, 1939, n. 51.
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De Felice 1974, p. 299, 1981, p. 280; D’Aroma 1958, p. 218; Moellhausen 1948, pp. 203–5; Innocenti 1992, p. 169. Attempts by the Vatican to get Ciano to intervene to have Catholics who had converted from Judaism treated as “Aryans” were rebuffed out of hand. “I beg you not to make me get involved with the Jews,” Ciano replied to the nuncio’s plea in April. Borgongini to Maglione, April 19, 1939, ASRS, AA.EE.SS., Pio XII, Parte Asterisco, Italia, posiz. 1054*, ff. 231r–32r.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 8
For documentation on Buffarini profiting financially from the racial laws, in collaboration with Antonio Le Pera, director of the office in charge of administering them, see the materials in the 1944 inquiry found at ACS, Ministero delle Finanze, Profitti di regime, b. 7. See also Canali and Volpini 2019; Giovanni and Palla 2019.
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Borgongini Duca to Maglione, August 30, 1939, ADSS, vol. 6, nn. 126 and 127. At the same time the German bishops were showing considerable solicitude for the plight of what they referred to as “non-Aryan Catholics,” as reflected in their memo: “Grave Situation of Catholics of the Jewish Race in Germany.” ASRS, AA.EE.SS., Pio XII, parte Asterisco, Stati Ecclesiastici, posiz. 575*, ff. 184r–96r.
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There are multiple Italian and German accounts of the Salzburg meetings, which lasted two days, but they coincide remarkably well: Ciano 1980, pp. 326–27, diary entries for August 10, 11, and 12, 1939; Grandi 1985, pp. 505–8; Foreign Ministry Secretariat, Berlin, Record of conversation at Obersalzberg, memorandum, August 12 and 13, 1939, DGFP, series D, vol. 7, nn. 43 and 47. See also Kershaw 1999, pp. 282–83, and Kershaw 2000, pp. 203–4.
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Chapter 6: The Nazi Prince
There have been some hints however that such talks may have been occurring, most notably from a reference in Ciano’s diary on January 8, 1940, to comments that Prince von Hessen had made alluding to the likelihood of a deal being reached between the Vatican and the German Reich (Ciano 1980, p. 384). In his book on the von Hessen brothers, Jonathan Petropoulos (2006, pp. 275–76) noted this reference as well as the enigmatic remark that Philipp von Hessen made about the talks in his Nuremburg war crimes trial after the war: “Pope Pius XII placed special trust in me and personally charged me with an important mission. I don’t think it right that I give information about the purpose or nature of this mission without special approval.” Petropoulos added, “Unfortunately, the Vatican’s refusal to open its archives for this period and Philipp’s reticence after the war on his dealings with Pius XII leave this history very sketchy.”
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 1
Petropoulos (2006, pp. 67–72) uncovered considerable detail documenting Philipp’s affair with Sassoon. Philipp’s homosexuality was known to Mussolini’s political police by 1934, and so most likely to Mussolini as well (informatore n. 571, July 12, 1934, ACS, MI, Polizia Politica, Materia, b. 40, carte non numerate).
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Serri 2015.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 3
The quote, from Machtan, is cited by Petropoulos 2006, p. 4. On German aristocrats’ support for Hitler, see Malinowski 2020. Pius XII knew quite a bit about von Hessen before the secret negotiations began, as his marriage to King Victor Emmanuel’s daughter Mafalda had resulted in a series of lengthy reports to the Vatican Secretariat of State in 1936–37. At issue was von Hessen’s failure to abide by the negotiated agreement at the time of his marriage, which had bound him to raise his children Catholic. “It seems that the two children, although baptized,” Monsignor Pizzardo, Tardini’s predecessor as secretary of extraordinary ecclesiastical affairs, observed late in 1936, “have been educated as Protestants.” Pizzardo to Borgongini, December 11, 1936, AAV, Arch. Nunz. Italia, b. 18, fasc. 1, f. 304r. On Hitler’s use of aristocrats in international relations, see Urbach 2015.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 4
The police informant folder on Travaglini, on which the above description is based, is found at ACS, MIFP, b. 1371.
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Travaglini added, “And if National Socialism will give the possibility of finding a road of understanding and agreement…there was no person better than Pope Pacelli, sincere friend of Germany, better disposed to finding a solution.” Cardinal Lauri forwarded the letter to the pope. Travaglini to Lauri, March 9, 1939, ASRS, AA.EE.SS., Pio XII, parte 1, Germania, posiz. 774, ff. 3r–4r.
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“Yesterday, Sunday,” Travaglini wrote to the cardinal, “His Royal Highness Prince Philipp von Hessen, son-in-law of our Emperor King, called me to Villa Savoia [the royal residence in Rome] to tell me that…he was studying with the Führer and with Goering the possibility of directly proposing to the Holy Father an exchange of ideas to bring about a conciliation on new bases between the Holy See and Germany…. Prince Philipp von Hessen will probably be called upon to arrange a secret meeting with the Holy Father and then give the Embassies the general outlines for a diplomatic agreement…. Perhaps I will have to accept the delicate task of assisting the above-mentioned Prince in his secret steps. To reach the Holy Father I will have to avail myself of the friendly services of Your Eminence.” Travaglini to Lauri, April 17, 1939, ASRS, AA.EE.SS., Pio XII, parte 1, Germania, posiz. 774, f. 5r.
Following Princess Mafalda’s marriage to von Hessen, King Victor Emmanuel gave them their own separate home, the Villa Polissena, which was part of the complex of the Villa Savoia. Petropoulos 2006, pp. 76–77.
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Von Hessen spoke not only Italian but English and French as well. Petropoulos 2006, p. 13.
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In the same folder is a note from Bishop Alois Hudal addressed, it seems, to Monsignor Montini, containing the same date, March 14, 1938: “I ask that perhaps with a telegram in cypher a notice be given to the Nunciature in Vienna so that in the Bishops’ Curias and in the Archives of the Congregations and Orders in Austria all the material regarding cases of immorality of priests is immediately and without exception burned and also the numbers of the protocols cancelled…. The matter is extremely delicate but very urgent.” The recommendation to the Vatican Secretariat of State apparently came from the Holy Office. ASRS, AA.EE.SS., Fondo Spogli, Scatole bianche, posiz. 1, ff. 25–30. Underlining in original.
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A report on the initial investigation of the German clergy, presented by Germany’s Justice Minister, is described in “ ‘Shocking’ sexual abuse of children by German clergy detailed in report,” The Guardian, September 25, 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/25/report-details-sexual-abuse-german-catholic-church. Follow-up investigations on the topic include a 2021 report focusing on the diocese of Cologne in the years 1975–2018, described in “Report finds hundreds of child sex abuse cases in German diocese,” Barron’s, March 17, 2021, https://www.barrons.com/news/german-diocese-faces-moment-of-truth-in-abuse-crisis-01616039706.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 10
“Konferenz Seiner Heiligkeit mit dem Prinz von Hessen, 11. Mai 1939,” ASRS, AA.EE.SS., Pio XII, parte I, Stati Ecclesiastici, posiz. 802, ff. 555–59.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 11
“Relazione sulla conversazione,” Travaglini, June 1, 1939, ASRS, AA.EE.SS., Pio XII, parte 1, Germania, posiz. 774, ff. 8r–9r.
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Travaglini to Lauri, July 3, 1939, ASRS, AA.EE.SS., Pio XII, parte 1, Germania, posiz. 774, ff. 10r–12r.
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Travaglini to Lauri, August 21, 1939, ASRS, AA.EE.SS., Pio XII, parte 1, Germania, posiz. 774, ff. 14r–16r.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 14
Travaglini to Lauri, August 24, 1939, ASRS, AA.EE.SS., Pio XII, parte 1, Germania, posiz. 774, ff. 17rv; Lauri to Pius XII, August 25, 1939, ASRS, AA.EE.SS., Pio XII, parte 1, Germania, posiz. 774, f. 20r.
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“Geheim-Audienz S.K.H. des Prinzen Philipp von Hessen, Samstag 26 Aug. 1939; Abends 6 Uhr,” ASRS, AA.EE.SS., Pio XII, parte 1, Germania, posiz. 774, ff. 22r–24r. Thanks to Gunnar Mokosch for his English translation of this and other German-language documents.
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Chapter 7: Saving Face
Phillips to FDR, August 18, 1939, FDR Library, psfa 401, pp. 20–23.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 1
Grandi 1985, p. 529, diary entry for August 21, 1939.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 2
Petacci 2011, p. 423; Bosworth 2017, p. 106; Monelli 1953, pp. 155–56.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 3
Petacci 2011, p. 173, diary entry for August 21, 1939.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 4
Bastianini 2005, pp. 69–73. In the account Bastianini gives of this encounter, he too was shocked by Mussolini’s reaction and tried to convince the Duce not to join Hitler in the war. This aspect of his account must be treated with considerable skepticism, as with other post hoc accounts by the top Fascists. Attolico, a career diplomat, is a different story and from all accounts was not enthusiastic about Italy joining Hitler’s side in the war. On Attolico, see Losito 1994.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 5
Tardini notes, August 24, 1939, ADSS, vol. 1, n. 116. First word of the pact was published in The New York Times on August 22: “Germany and Russia agree on non-aggression: Ribbentrop going to Moscow to draft pact; Berlin sees quick showdown with Poland,” p. 1.
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See Coco 2019. The two main sections of the Secretariat of State, which followed the 1908 reorganization plan, consisted of the First Section, dealing with “extraordinary ecclesiastical affairs,” headed by the Secretary of the Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, and the Second Section of “ordinary affairs,” headed by the sostituto, or substitute. However, as Graham (1984, pp. 70–71) noted, Pius XII never took this distinction too seriously and so the division of responsibilities between Tardini (of the first section) and Montini (of the second section) was never hard and fast.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 7
D’Ormesson final report, October 28, 1940, MAEC, Guerre Vichy, 550. Cardinal Baudrillart’s diary entry on a day he met with both men captures the contrast that struck many others as well: “Montini refined and distinguished, Tardini, a bit common of manners.” Baudrillart 1996, p. 969, diary entry for February 25, 1939. “A bluff and breezy Roman, friendly, cheerful and voluble,” was the way the British envoy to the Vatican described Tardini. Osborne report, June 6, 1946, NAK, FO 371, 60812, ZM, 1993, 1946. See also Casula 1989, pp. 207–12, and Riccardi 1982. For a good biographical sketch of Tardini, see Sergio Pagano’s introduction to Tardini’s diary, Pagano 2020, pp. vii–xxxii.
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Osborne would likewise predict, in his 1946 biographical sketch of Montini for London, that “he may well be the next Pope but one,” a prediction that turned out to be exactly on target. Osborne report, June 6, 1946, NAK, FO 371, 60812, ZM, 1993, 1946.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 9
Pignatti to Ciano, August 25, 1939, DDI, series 8, vol. 13, n. 270; Friedländer 1966, pp. 28–31; Tardini notes, August 26, 1939, ADSS, vol. 1, n. 127.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 10
Grandi 1985, p. 532, diary entry for August 25, 1939.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 11
Mackensen to Ribbentrop, August 25, 1939, DGFP, series D, vol. 7, n. 280.
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Later in the day, Hitler added a second note, renewing his request to have the Italian military compel the French to devote a sizable contingent of their troops to the Italian border. Should the Polish invasion lead to a wider war, added the Führer, he would, after quickly dispatching Poland, attack the West with great force. “I must now ask a great favor of you, Duce. In this difficult struggle you and your people can best help me by sending me Italian workers, both for industrial and agricultural purposes.” Mussolini to Hitler (relayed by telephone by Ciano to Attolico in Berlin), August 26, 1939; Hitler to Mussolini, August 26, 1939; Hitler to Mussolini (communicated via Mackensen), August 26, 1939, DGFP, series D, vol. 7, nn. 301, 307, 341.
