The Pope at War, page 57
The German ambassador, referring to Dalla Torre’s stream of attacks on the Third Reich in the Vatican newspaper under Pius XI, advised Berlin that “under the new pontificate [Dalla Torre’s] activities in this area are almost completely prohibited.” In mid-April Dalla Torre sent a handwritten note to the Vatican secretary of state, politely objecting to the “silence” the pope had imposed on the Vatican paper in reporting German offenses against the church. His request to allow such criticisms was denied. German embassy to the Holy See to Foreign Ministry, Berlin, n.d. (1939), PAAA, GARV, R549; Dalla Torre, April 18, 1939, ASRS, AA.EE.SS., Pio XII, Parte Asterisco, Stati Ecclesiastici, posiz. 378*, ff. 4, 5, 6–8.
Britain’s envoy to the Vatican got to know Dalla Torre and his family—who lived in Vatican City—well during the war and was pleased by his faith that the Allies would ultimately win. While Dalla Torre, who had been director of L’Osservatore Romano for two decades, had been close to Pius XI, he never developed the same relationship with his successor, and his relations with Montini and Tardini were also somewhat fraught. OSS report, interview with Dalla Torre, February 21, 1945, NARA, RG 226, Microfilm M1642, roll 103, pp. 58–63; Osborne to Foreign Office, London, June 6, 1946, NAK, FO 371, 60812, ZM 1993, 1946; Alessandrini 1982, pp. 150–53.
Pius XII discussed his reservations about Dalla Torre with Monsignor Tardini on September 22, as discussed in Tardini’s diary entry that day. Pagano 2020, p. 170. The pope returned to the subject again in speaking with Tardini four days later: “His Holiness again tells me of his unhappiness with L’Osservatore Romano. His attitude toward Count Dalla Torre is very severe. He prefers that he not write” (p. 176).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 7
Pignatti to Ciano, September 29, 1939, n. 165, ASDMAE, AISS, b. 116.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 8
Pignatti to Ciano, September 30, 1939, n. 166, and Pignatti to Ciano, October 1, 1939, n. 168, ASDMAE, AISS, b. 113. Evidence that the Italian ambassador continued to recognize the need to quiet the press campaign against Dalla Torre if they wanted the pope to get rid of him comes from a mid-October letter he sent to Dino Alfieri, then head of the Ministry of Popular Culture, which oversaw the Italian press: “To obtain the substitution of Count Dalla Torre from the direction of the Vatican newspaper,” wrote Pignatti, “it would be necessary for the Italian press to stop writing about him for a long period. I realize that this is difficult.” Pignatti to Alfieri, October 18, 1939, ACS, MCPG, 2o vers, b. 10.
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Osborne to Halifax, London, October 13, 1939, NAK, FO 380/188, n. 99/50/30. Warsaw had surrendered on September 27 and the following day the German and Soviet leaders signed a treaty dividing the country between them. All military operations had been concluded by October 6. Herbert 2019, pp. 315–16.
Responding to criticism of the pope’s silence, the Vatican newspaper offered a vigorous rebuttal. The pope had clearly shown his “paternal solicitude toward unfortunate Poland.” The reference here was to the words the pope addressed at the end of September to Poland’s cardinal primate and the Poles who had accompanied him in his visit to the pope’s summer palace in the Alban Hills. Speaking in French, the pope told them, “You have come not to make any demands, nor to express noisy complaints, but to ask for a word of consolation and comfort in your suffering from our heart, from our lips.” Here the pope quoted the words of Saint Paul to the Corinthians, “Who of you can suffer without my suffering with you?”
Unhappy with the pope’s silence, governments in London and Paris decided to mount a behind-the-scenes campaign to turn up the pressure. British and French cardinals, urged one senior British foreign officer, should write directly to the pope “and point out what an unfortunate effect his silence on the subject of Poland was having on Catholic opinion in our two countries.” The archbishop of Paris, told by France’s ambassador to the Vatican that the pope’s refusal to condemn the German aggression threatened to produce a wave of anticlericalism in the country, wrote the pope his own plea. Sargent memo to secretary of state, October 18, 1939, NAK, FO 800/325, 19; Baudrillart 1998, pp. 233–34, 237, diary entries for October 8 and 11, 1939. The alternative approach, considered by the British Foreign Office, of having the government directly approach the pope through his apostolic delegate in London, seemed less promising to the British foreign service officer. It would, he advised Halifax, be “better to have leading Catholics in this country, such as the Duke of Norfolk and Lord Perth to take up the matter…. I think the Pope would be more likely to be impressed if this criticism of his inaction emanated from the faithful in this country rather than from H.M. Government.” Halifax quickly followed through with letters to the most prominent Catholics of the British nobility. His letter to the Duke of Norfolk began in a typically understated way,
My dear Bernard,
The attitude which the Pope has publicly adopted hitherto towards the present war, and particularly towards the German invasion of Poland, has been causing me some concern…. [I]t is probably true that if he were openly and uncompromisingly to denounce Hitler and all his works he would lose the allegiance of a very considerable number of German Catholics…. Nevertheless, making every allowance for the difficulty of the decision confronting His Holiness, one is left with an uncomfortable feeling that his attitude towards Germany’s wanton attack on Poland is perhaps a little less courageous than his predecessor’s would have been (Halifax to Duke of Norfolk, October 25, 1939, NAK, FO 380/188, no. H/XXXVIII/57).
Perth, in responding to Halifax’s request, appeared to have little confidence in the initiative: “My dear Edward, Your letter raises a most difficult problem…. I doubt…whether the Pope will go so far as to specify in his condemnation Hitler himself or his works: I wonder whether we can expect him to do so, his primary charge being, as he often says, the care of souls.” Perth added that he would speak of the matter to Monsignor Godfrey, the papal delegate to Britain, but suggested there was no point speaking to Britain’s only cardinal, Arthur Hinsley. “The Cardinal does not, I fear, carry much weight in Rome” (Lord Perth to Halifax, October 26, 1939, NAK, FO 800/325, 23).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 10
The pope’s remarks were directed to the new Lithuanian ambassador to the Holy See on October 18. Pignatti to Ciano, October 19, 1939, DDI, series 9, vol. 1, n. 811.
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The English text of Summi Pontificatus is found at http://www.vatican.va/content/pius-xii/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xii_enc_20101939_summi-pontificatus.html.
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Pignatti to Ciano, October 30, 1939, ASDMAE, AISS, b. 100; “La prima enciclica di Pio XII,” PI, October 27, 1939, p. 2; Direzione Generale Stampa Estera, Appunto per il ministro, October 28, 1939, ASDMAE, Minculpop, b. 189; “Considerazioni tedesche sull’enciclica,” OR, November 5, 1939, p. 2; “L’Enciclica di Pio XII,” RF, October 28, 1939, p. 2.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 13
Questura di Roma alla DGPS, fonogramma, October 23, 1939, n. 222710, ACS, MI, DAGRA 39, b. 38A; Lauri to Pius XII, October 22, 1939, ASRS, AA.EE.SS., Pio XII, parte 1, Germania, posiz. 774, f. 18r.
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On the Nazis’ views of Christianity, see Steigmann-Gall 2003.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 15
Sonder-Audienz für Prinz Philipp v. Hessen, Castel Gandolfo, 24.Okt.1939, 16 Uhr., ASRS, AA.EE.SS., Pio XII, parte 1, Germania, posiz. 774, ff. 26r–28r. It would seem that the labeling of the meeting as taking place in Castel Gandolfo is in error, as according to police reports the pope left there two days earlier.
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Chapter 10: A Papal Curse
Phillips to FDR, October 18, 1939, FDR Library, psfa 401, pp. 43–46.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 1
Petacci 2011, pp. 221, 223–24, diary entries for October 20 and 22, 1939.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 2
Grandi 1985, pp. 554–56; Charles-Roux reports to Foreign Ministry, Paris, November 2 and 3, 1939, MAEN, RSS 576, PO/1, 1108.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 3
The Vatican report, from 1940, is quoted in Huener 2021, p. 98.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 4
“Notiziario polacco,” OR, November 19, 1939, p. 6; “La ‘riserva ebraica di Lublino,’ ” OR, November 29, 1939, p. 1; Osborne to Ivone Kirkpatrick, Foreign Office, London, November 29, 1939, NAK, FO 380/188, no. C19637; Lewy 1964, p. 245. On the closing of German seminaries, especially those suspected of harboring opponents to the regime, see Burkhard and Weiss 2007.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 5
Charles-Roux 1947, pp. 354–55.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 6
“La presentazione delle credenziali del nuovo ambasciatore d’Italia,” and “Il nuovo Ambasciatore d’Italia,” OR, December 8, 1939, pp. 1–2; Roberto Farinacci, “Un discorso ignorato,” RF, December 10, 1939, p. 1.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 7
“Il Papa impartisce la benedizione ‘Urbi et Orbi’ dalla Loggia di S. Maria Maggiore,” PI, December 9, 1939, p. 1. A Luce newsreel captured the scene: https://patrimonio.archivioluce.com/luce-web/detail/IL5000022947/2/il-papa-impartisce-benedizione-urbi-et-orbi-davanti-ad-immensa-folla-fedeli.html&jsonVal=.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 8
Ciano 1980, pp. 375, 376, diary entries for December 18 and 21, 1939; Le pape Pie XII au roi et à la reine d’Italie, December 21, 1939, and Tardini notes, December 21, 1939, ADSS, vol. 1, nn. 230 and 231; Charles-Roux 1947, p. 357. Mussolini’s newspaper, along with papers throughout Italy, devoted page after page to the event. Its front-page subtitle summed up the main message: “Long Discussion with Pius XII—Galeazzo Ciano Accompanies the August Guests—The Pope Blesses a Vigilant, Strong Italy, the Royals, the Head of the Government, and His Collaborators.” “L’odierna visita dei Sovrani d’Italia al Sommo Pontefice,” PI, December 21, 1939, p. 1. The Italian papers gave special attention to the fact that the pope, in addressing Victor Emmanuel, publicly referred to him with his recently acquired title: “King of Albania.”
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 9
Charles-Roux to Foreign Ministry, Paris, December 22, 1939, MAEN, RSS 576, PO/1, 1090.
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When word of the planned papal visit reached him at the Italian embassy in Cairo, Serafino Mazzolini, Mussolini’s ambassador to Egypt, was overjoyed. “The exceptional importance of the event,” he wrote in his diary, “does not escape anyone. Pius XII is a great pope! And he is Roman! And our king adds a new glorious page to his reign. What an example to the world on the part of Fascist and Catholic Rome!” Rossi 2005, p. 251, diary entry for December 23, 1939.
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Cardinal Baudrillart (1996, pp. 193–94, diary entry for May 5, 1936) used the term “convinced fascist” to describe Schuster. “S.E. il Cardinale restituisce la visita al Federale alla sede della Federazione,” L’Italia, December 24, 1939, p. 4. Government reports of Schuster’s sympathies for Fascism began with his appointment as archbishop of Milan in 1929. August 14, 1929, ACS, SPD, CR-RSI, b. 49; Ferrari 1982, p. 587. In featuring news of the pope’s planned visit to the Italian king, Milan’s Catholic paper told its readers that it was “only right that the Pope’s first visit in his capacity as Sovereign was destined to be to the Sovereign of imperial and fascist Italy.” “Pio XII restituirà al Quirinale la visita ai Sovrani d’Italia,” L’Italia, December 24, 1939, p. 1.
Cementing the close identification of the pope with Italy’s Fascist rulers in the mind of the public, the day before the pope’s visit to the king he let Ciano know he would be awarding him a papal knighthood, the Order of the Golden Spur, in recognition of all he had done both for the cause of peace and to promote close church-state relations in Italy. The king reciprocated by naming Cardinal Maglione a royal knight, sending him the ornate collar denoting membership in the Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation. “Lo Speron d’Oro al conte Ciano,” AI, December 27, 1939, p. 2; Ciano 1980, p. 378, diary entry for December 27, 1939. The exchange of decorations was discussed in a British Foreign Office memo, which speculated that the exchange of visits between pope and king had been Ciano’s idea “and that Signor Mussolini may have been less enthusiastic.” Foreign Office note, December 27, 1939, NAK, FO 371, 24935, 33.
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“Lo Storico evento al Quirinale: Il popolo dell’Urbe assisterà oggi in festa alla visita del Pontefice ai Sovrani d’Italia,” PI, December 28, 1939, p. 1; booklet of papal visit, Casa di Sua Maestà, December 28, 1939, ASDMAE, AISS, b. 116; “La visita di Pio XII ai Sovrani in una cornice di fasto imperiale,” PI, December 29, 1939, pp. 1–2; Charles-Roux 1947, pp. 359–60; Loraine to Halifax, December 29, 1939, NAK, FO 371, 24935, 42–43. Phillips, the American ambassador, described the Italian king as “a thin little man with too short legs, a screwed-up face and a bristling mustache, but with a certain dignity in spite of his insignificant appearance.” Phillips 1952, p. 192.
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For his part, the king appeared pleased with the exchange of visits, as he told Borgongini at their New Year’s audience, and he praised the remarks the pope had made. Borgongini to Maglione, December 30, 1939, AAV, Arch. Nunz. Italia, b. 18, fasc. 4, ff. 71r–73r.
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Chapter 11: Man of Steel
Examples include “Relazione sulla situazione politica ed economica della Provincia relativa al periodo 1 ottobre–31 dicembre 1939,” tel. 67161/441/042846, Questura di Roma, ACS, MI, DAGRA 41, b. 56; Informativa dalla Città del Vaticano (n. 40—Troiani), January 1, 1940, ACS, MI, MAT, b. 221; Informativa da Roma (n. 561—Alicino), January 5, 1940, ACS, MI, MAT, b. 221. Grandi (1985, p. 559) was of the same view.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 1
Menshausen to Foreign Ministry, Berlin, dated December 31, 1939, sent January 1, 1940, tel. 158, PAAA, GBS, 261178, 32.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 2
Questura di Roma alla DGPS, fonogramma, February 10, 1940, n. 25720, ACS, MI, DAGRA 40, b. 35B; “La Conciliazione,” PI, February 10, 1940, p. 1; “All’Ambasciata d’Italia,” OR, February 12, 1940, p. 2; “L’anniversario della Conciliazione,” PI, February 12, 1940, p. 2; “L’anniversario della Conciliazione fra Stato e Chiesa,” RF, February 11, 1940, p. 1; Alfieri 1955, p. 9.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 3
Maglione notes, February 17, 1940, ADSS, vol. 1, n. 247. That Ciano’s ongoing attempts to portray himself as their champion in steering Mussolini away from war were not altogether successful is evident from Tardini’s diary entry of a few months later. In speaking on May 1 with the Italian embassy’s chargé d’affaires, Tardini told him he had never believed in the supposed disagreement between Ciano and Mussolini, with Ciano presumably opposed to war and pro-British, and Mussolini a war-loving Anglophobe. “It is all an act,” thought Tardini, aimed at keeping all their options open. Pagano 2020, p. 183.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 4
Caviglia 2009, pp. 266–67, diary entry for February 19, 1940.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 5
Sumner Welles reports, February 26 and March 1, 1940, FDR Library, psfa 71, pp. 3–14, 27–39.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 6
Phillips to FDR, February 26, 1940, FDR Library, psfa 401, pp. 57–61; Sumner Welles report, February 26, 1940, FDR Library, psfa 71, pp. 16–25; Welles to FDR, February 26, 1940, FDR Library, psfa 36, pp. 2–14; Phillips to secretary of state, Washington, D.C., February 28, 1940, FDR Library, psfa 36, pp. 19–21; Ciano 1980, p. 399, diary entry for February 26, 1940.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 7
Roosevelt’s letter to the pope, dated December 23, 1939, is reproduced in FRUS 1939, vol. 2, pp. 871–72. The president’s letter informing Taylor of his appointment, with the same date, is at FRUS 1939, vol. 2, pp. 873–74; Hull to Phillips, Rome, December 23, 1939, FRUS 1939, vol. 2, p. 873; Flynn 1972, pp. 183–85; Chadwick 1986, p. 101. The British ambassador to France, on the day after the appointment, sent a note to the Foreign Office in London, observing: “The Roman Catholic vote was necessary to Pres Roosevelt: hence his recent appointment of Mr. Myron Taylor to the Vatican.” NAK, FO 800/325, 404. On Roosevelt’s relations with the American church hierarchy, see Fogarty 2003.
