Determined, page 52
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 23
S. Lawrie et al., “Brain Structure and Function Changes during the Development of Schizophrenia: The Evidence from Studies of Subjects at Increased Genetic Risk,” Schizophrenia Bulletin 34 (2008): 330; C. Pantelis et al., “Neuroanatomical Abnormalities Before and After Onset of Psychosis: A Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal MRI Comparison,” Lancet 361 (2003): 281.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 24
J. Harris et al., “Abnormal Cortical Folding in High-Risk Individuals: A Predictor of the Development of Schizophrenia?,” Biological Psychiatry 56 (2004): 182; R. Birnbaum and D. Weinberger, “Functional Neuroimaging and Schizophrenia: A View towards Effective Connectivity Modeling and Polygenic Risk,” Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience 15 (2022): 279.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 25
D. Eisenberg and K. Berman, “Executive Function, Neural Circuitry, and Genetic Mechanisms in Schizophrenia,” Neuropsychopharmacology 35, no. 1 (2010): 258.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 26
B. Birur et al., “Brain Structure, Function, and Neurochemistry in Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder—a Systematic Review of the Magnetic Resonance Neuroimaging Literature,” NPJ Schizophrenia 3 (2017): 15; J. Fitzsimmons, M. Kubicki, and M. Shenton, “Review of Functional and Anatomical Brain Connectivity Findings in Schizophrenia,” Current Opinions in Psychiatry 26 (2013): 172; K. Karlsgodt, D. Sun, and T. Cannon, “Structural and Functional Brain Abnormalities in Schizophrenia,” Current Directions in Psychological Sciences 19 (2010): 226.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 27
Footnote: For an exploration of some of the complexities of making sense of both schizophrenia and Parkinson’s at the same time, see: J. Waddington, “Psychosis in Parkinson’s Disease and Parkinsonism in Antipsychotic-Naive Schizophrenia Spectrum Psychosis: Clinical, Nosological and Pathobiological Challenges,” Acta Pharmacologica Sinica 41 (2020): 464.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 28
Footnote: K. Terkelsen, “Schizophrenia and the Family: II. Adverse Effects of Family Therapy,” Family Processes 22 (1983): 191.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 29
A. McLean, “Contradictions in the Social Production of Clinical Knowledge: The Case of Schizophrenia,” Social Science and Medicine 30 (1990): 969. For a moving, horrendous history of a family as afflicted by schizophrenia as any in America, see: R. Kolker, Hidden Valley Road: Inside the Mind of an American Family (Doubleday, 2020).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 30
T. McGlashan, “The Chestnut Lodge Follow-up Study. II. Long-Term Outcome of Schizophrenia and the Affective Disorders,” Archives of General Psychiatry 41 (1984): 586. Torrey’s satire: E. Fuller Torrey, “A Fantasy Trial about a Real Issue,” Psychology Today (March 1977), 22.
Interviews with Eleanor Owen, Laurie Flynn, and Ron Honberg were conducted on 7/23/2019, 7/24/2019, and 7/25/2019, respectively.
Footnote: M. Sheridan et al., “The Impact of Social Disparity on Prefrontal Function in Childhood,” PLoS One 7 (2012): e35744; J. L. Hanson et al., “Structural Variations in Prefrontal Cortex Mediate the Relationship between Early Childhood Stress and Spatial Working Memory,” Journal of Neuroscience 32 (2012): 7917; R. Sapolsky, “Glucocorticoids and Hippocampal Atrophy in Neuropsychiatric Disorders,” Archives of General Psychiatry 57 (2000): 925.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 31
Bruno Bettelheim, Surviving—and Other Essays (Knopf, 1979), p. 110.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 32
M. Finn, “In the Case of Bruno Bettelheim,” First Things, June 1997; R. Pollak, The Creation of Dr. B: A Biography of Bruno Bettelheim (Simon & Schuster, 1997).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 33
D. Kaufer et al., “Acute Stress Facilitates Long-Lasting Changes in Cholinergic Gene Expression,” Nature 393 (1998): 373; A. Friedman et al., “Pyridostigmine Brain Penetration under Stress Enhances Neuronal Excitability and Induces Early Immediate Transcriptional Response,” Nature Medicine 2 (1996): 1382; R. Sapolsky, “The Stress of Gulf War Syndrome,” Nature 393 (1998): 308; C. Amourette et al., “Gulf War Illness: Effects of Repeated Stress and Pyridostigmine Treatment on Blood-Brain Barrier Permeability and Cholinesterase Activity in Rat Brain,” Behavioral Brain Research 203 (2009): 207; P. Landrigan, “Illness in Gulf War Veterans: Causes and Consequences,” Journal of the American Medical Association 277 (1997): 259.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 34
E. Klingler et al., “Mapping the Molecular and Cellular Complexity of Cortical Malformations,” Science 371 (2021): 361; S. Mueller et al., “The Neuroanatomy of Transgender Identity: Mega-analytic Findings from the ENIGMA Transgender Persons Working Group,” Journal of Sexual Medicine 18 (2021): 1122.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 35
14. The Joy of Punishment
B. Tuchman, A Distant Mirror (Random House, 1994); P. Shipman, “The Bright Side of the Black Death,” American Science 102 (2014): 410.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 1
“In the Middle Ages There Was No Such Thing as Childhood,” Economist, January 3, 2019; J. Robb et al., “The Greatest Health Problem of the Middle Ages? Estimating the Burden of Disease in Medieval England,” International Journal of Paleopathology 34 (2021): 101; M. Shirk, “Violence and the Plague in Aragón, 1348–1351,” Quidditas 5 (1984): article 5.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 2
The Lepers’ Plot: S. Tibble, “Medieval Strategy? The Great ‘Leper Conspiracy’ of 1321,” Yale University Books, September 11, 2020, yalebooks.yale.edu/2020/09/11/medieval-strategy-the-great-leper-conspiracy-of-1321/; D. Nirenberg, Communities of Violence: Persecution of Minorities in the Middle Ages (Princeton University Press, 1996); I. Ritzmann, “The Black Death as a Cause of the Massacres of Jews: A Myth of Medical History?,” Medizin, Gesellschaft und Geschichte 17 (1998): 101 [in German]; M. Barber, “Lepers, Jews and Moslems: The Plot to Overthrow Christendom in 1321,” History 66 (1989): 1; T. Barzilay, “Early Accusations of Well Poisoning against Jews: Medieval Reality or Historiographical Fiction?,” Medieval Encounters 22 (2016): 517.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 3
Weyer: V. Hoorens, “The Link between Witches and Psychiatry: Johan Weyer,” KU Lueven News, September 9, 2011, nieuws.kuleuven.be/en/content/2011/jan_wier.html; Encyclopedia.com, s.v. “Weyer, Johan,” encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/weyer-johan-also-known-john-wier-or-wierus-1515-1588.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 4
Execution of Robert Damiens, Château de Versailles: “Assassination Attempt on King Louis XV by Damiens, 1757,” n.d., en.chateauversailles.fr/discover/history/key-dates/assassination-attempt-king-louis-xv-damiens-1757; “Letter from a Gentleman in Paris to His Friend in London,” in Anonymous, A Particular and Authentic Narration of the Life, Examination, Torture, and Execution of Robert Francis Damien [sic], trans. Thomas Jones (London, 1757), also available at revolution.chnm.org/d/238. Renting out the box seats to the wealthy: “The Truly Horrific Execution of Robert-François Damiens,” Unfortunate Ends, June 25, 2021, YouTube video, 14:40, youtube.com/watch?v=K7q8VSEBOMI; executedtoday.com/2008/03/28/1757-robert-francois-damiens-discipline-and-punish/.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 5
A. Lollini, Constitutionalism and Transitional Justice in South Africa (Human Rights in Context, vol. 5) (Berghahn Books, 2011). For an exploration of the psychological weight of truth and reconciliation, see P. Gobodo-Madikizela, A Human Being Died That Night (Houghton-Mifflin, 2003).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 6
Positive reviews of restorative justice: V. Camp and J. Wemmers, “Victim Satisfaction with Restorative Justice: More Than Simply Procedural Justice,” International Review of Victimology 19 (2013): 117; L. Walgrave, “Investigating the Potentials of Restorative Justice Practice,” Washington University Journal of Law and Policy 36 (2011): 91.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 7
F. Marineli et al., “Mary Mallon (1869–1938) and the History of Typhoid Fever,” Annals of Gastroenterology 26 (2013): 132; J. Leavitt, Typhoid Mary: Captive to the Public’s Health (Putnam, 1996).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 8
For recent and forceful advocacy of quarantine approaches to criminality, see: D. Pereboom, Wrongdoing and the Moral Emotions (Oxford University Press, 2021); G. Caruso and D. Pereboom, Moral Responsibility Reconsidered (Cambridge University Press, 2022); G. Caruso, Rejecting Retributivism (Cambridge University Press, 2021); G. Caruso, “Free Will Skepticism and Criminal Justice: The Public Health–Quarantine Model,” in Oxford Handbook of Moral Responsibility, ed. D. Nelkin and D. Pereboom (Oxford University Press, 2022).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 9
M. Powers and R. Faden, Social Justice: The Moral Foundations of Public Health and Health Policy (Oxford University Press, 2006).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 10
S. Smilansky, “Hard Determinism and Punishment: A Practical Reductio,’ Law and Philosophy 30 (2011): 353. The worry that quarantine models will lead to indefinite detention: M. Corrado, “Fichte and the Psychopath: Criminal Justice Turned Upside Down,” in Free Will Skepticism in Law and Society, ed. E. Shaw, D. Pereboom, and G. Caruso (Cambridge University Press, 2019).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 11
Footnote: D. Zweig, “They Were the Last Couple in Paradise. Now They’re Stranded,” New York Times, April 5, 2020, nytimes.com/2020/04/05/style/coronavirus-honeymoon-stranded.html. Tracking down their resort island on Google Earth reveals that their Devil’s Island with mai tais was approximately one thousand by six hundred feet.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 12
R. Dundon, “Photos: Less Than a Century Ago, 20,000 People Traveled to Kentucky to See a White Woman Hang a Black Man,” Timeline, Medium, February 22, 2018, timeline.com/rainy-bethea-last-public-execution-in-america-lischia-edwards-6f035f61c229; “Denies Owning Ring Found in Widow’s Room,” Messenger-Inquirer (Owensboro, KY), June 11, 1936; “Negro’s Second Confession Bares Hiding Place,” Owensboro (KY) Messenger, June 13, 1936; “10,000 See Hanging of Kentucky Negro; Woman Sheriff Avoids Public Appearance as Ex-policeman Springs Trap. CROWD JEERS AT CULPRIT Some Grab Pieces of Hood for Souvenirs as Doctors Pronounce Condemned Man Dead,” New York Times, August 15, 1936; “Souvenir Hunters at Hanging Tear Hood Face,” Evening Star (Washington, DC), August 14, 1936; C. Pitzulo, “The Skirted Sheriff: Florence Thompson and the Nation’s Last Public Execution,” Register of the Kentucky Historical Society 115 (2017): 377.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 13
P. Kropotkin, Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution (1902; Graphic Editions, 2020). For a nice biography of him, see G. Woodcock, Peter Kropotkin: From Prince to Rebel (Black Rose Books, 1990).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 14
K. Foster et al., “Pleiotropy as a Mechanism to Stability Cooperation,” Nature 431 (2004): 693.
Footnote: The merging of eukaryotic cells and mitochondria is one of the most important events in the history of life on earth, and its occurrence was first proposed by the visionary evolutionary biologist Lynn Margulis; naturally, it was roundly rejected and ridiculed for years by most in the field, until modern molecular techniques fully vindicated her. Her seminal paper is (published as Lynn Sagan, reflecting her marriage at the time to astronomer Carl Sagan): L. Sagan, “On the Origin of Mitosing Cells,” Journal of Theoretical Biology 14 (1967): 255.
W. Eberhard, “Evolutionary Consequences of Intracellular Organelle Competition,” Quarterly Review of Biology 55 (1980): 231; J. Agren and S. Wright, “Co-evolution between Transposable Elements and Their Hosts: A Major Factor in Genome Size,” Chromosome Research 19 (2011): 777. Selfish mitochondria: J. Havird, “Selfish Mitonuclear Conflict,” Current Biology 29 (2019): PR496.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 15
Chimps: F. de Waal, Chimpanzee Politics (Allen & Unwin, 1982). Wrens: R. Mulder and N. Langmore, “Dominant Males Punish Helpers for Temporary Defection in Superb Fairy-Wrens,” Animal Behavior 45 (1993): 830. Naked mole rats: H. Reeve, “Queen Activation of Lazy Workers in Colonies of the Eusocial Naked Mole-Rat,” Nature 358 (1992): 147. Reefer/wrasse fish: R. Bshary and A. Grutter, “Punishment and Partner Switching Cause Cooperative Behaviour in a Cleaning Mutualism,” Biology Letters 1 (2005): 396. Social bacteria: Foster et al., “Pleiotropy as a Mechanism to Stability Cooperation.” Transposon hegemony: E. Kelleher, D. Barbash, and J. Blumenstiel, “Taming the Turmoil Within: New Insights on the Containment of Transposable Elements,” Trends in Genetics 36 (2020): 474; J. Agren, N. Davies, and K. Foster, “Enforcement Is Central to the Evolution of Cooperation,” Nature Ecology and Evolution 3 (2019): 1018. Transposon exploitation: E. Kelleher, “Reexamining the P-Element Invasion of Drosophila melanogaster through the Lens of piRNA Silencing,” Genetics 203 (2016): 1513.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 16
R. Boyd, H. Gintis, and S. Bowles, “Coordinated Punishment of Defectors Sustains Cooperation and Can Proliferate When Rare,” Science 328 (2010): 617.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 17
R. Axelrod and W. D. Hamilton, “The Evolution of Cooperation,” Science 211 (1981): 1390. Also see J. Henrich and M. Muthukrishna, “The Origins and Psychology of Human Cooperation,” Annual Review of Psychology 72 (2021): 207. Much of this game-theory literature is based on the assumed social equality of the players. For an analysis of how cooperation goes down the tubes once it is unequals who are playing, see O. Hauser et al., “Social Dilemmas among Unequals,” Nature 572 (2019): 524.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 18
G. Aydogan et al., “Oxytocin Promotes Altruistic Punishment,” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 12 (2017): 1740; T. Yamagishi et al., “Behavioural Differences and Neural Substrates of Altruistic and Spiteful Punishment,” Science Reports 7 (2017): 14654; T. Baumgartner et al., “Who Initiates Punishment, Who Joins Punishment? Disentangling Types of Third-Party Punishers by Neural Traits,” Human Brain Mapping 42 (2021): 5703; O. Klimeck, P. Vuilleumier, and D. Sander, “The Impact of Emotions and Empathy-Related Traits on Punishment Behavior: Introduction and Validation of the Inequality Game,” PLoS One 11 (2016): e0151028.
Costly punishment during child development: Y. Kanakogi et al., “Third-Party Punishment by Preverbal Infants,” Nature Human Behaviour 6 (2022): 1234; G. D. Salali, M. Juda, and J. Henrich, “Transmission and Development of Costly Punishment in Children,” Evolution and Human Behavior 36, no. 2 (2015): 86–94;
Just us: K. Riedl et al., “No Third-Party Punishment in Chimpanzees,” PNAS 109, no. 37 (2012): 14824–29.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 19
B. Herrmann, C. Thöni, and S. Gächter, “Antisocial Punishment across Societies,” Science 319 (2008): 1362; J. Henrich and N. Henrich, “Fairness without Punishment: Behavioral Experiments in the Yasawa Island, Fiji,” in Experimenting with Social Norms: Fairness and Punishment in Cross-Cultural Perspective, ed. J. Ensminger and J. Henrich (Russell Sage Foundation, 2014); J. Engelmann, E. Herrmann, and M. Tomasello, “Five-Year Olds, but Not Chimpanzees, Attempt to Manage Their Reputations,” PLoS One 7 (2012): e48433; R. O’Gorman, J. Henrich, and M. Van Vugt, “Constraining Free Riding in Public Goods Games: Designated Solitary Punishers Can Sustain Human Cooperation,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 276 (2009): 323.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 20
A. Norenzayan, Big Gods: How Religion Transformed Cooperation and Conflict (Princeton University Press, 2013); M. Lang et al., “Moralizing Gods, Impartiality and Religious Parochialism across 15 Societies,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 286 (2019): 1898. Also see: J. Henrich et al., “Market, Religion, Community Size and the Evolution of Fairness and Punishment,” Science 327 (2010): 1480.
Footnote: Herrmann, Thöni, and Gächter, “Antisocial Punishment across Societies”; M. Cinyabuguma, T. Page, and L. Putterman, “Can Second-Order Punishment Deter Perverse Punishment?,” Experimental Economics 9 (2006): 265.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 21
J. Jordan et al., “Third-Party Punishment as a Costly Signal of Trustworthiness,” Nature 530 (2016): 473.
Footnote: Henrich and Henrich, “Fairness without Punishment.”
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 22
The costs and benefits of being a third party punisher: Jordan et al., “Third-Party Punishment as a Costly Signal”; N. Nikiforakis and D. Engelmann, “Altruistic Punishment and the Threat of Feuds,” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 78 (2011): 319; D. Gordon, J. Madden, and S. Lea, “Both Loved and Feared: Third Party Punishers Are Viewed as Formidable and Likeable, but Those Reputational Benefits May Only Be Open to Dominant Individuals,” PLoS One 27 (2014): e110045; M. Milinski, “Reputation, a Universal Currency for Human Social Interactions,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society London B: Biological Sciences 371 (2016): 20150100.
