Determined, page 51
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 34
Crone and Levy, “Are Free Will Believers Nicer People?”
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 35
C. Ma-Kellams and J. Blascovich, “Does ‘Science’ Make You Moral? The Effects of Priming Science on Moral Judgments and Behavior,” PLoS One 8 (2013): e57989.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 36
See the two Brenner papers, reference 19; A. Keysar, “Who Are America’s Atheists and Agnostics?,” in Secularism and Secularity: Contemporary International Perspectives, ed. B. Kosmin and A. Keysar (Institute for the Study of Secularism in Society and Culture, 2007).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 37
Galen, Sharp, and McNulty, “The Role of Nonreligious Group Factors”; A. Jorm and H. Christensen, “Religiosity and Personality: Evidence for Non-linear Associations,” Personality and Individual Differences 36 (2004): 1433; D. Bock and N. Warren, “Religious Belief as a Factor in Obedience to Destructive Demands,” Review of Religious Research 13 (1972): 185; F. Curlin et al., “Do Religious Physicians Disproportionately Care for the Underserved?,” Annals of Family Medicine 5 (2007): 353; S. Oliner and P. Oliner, The Altruistic Personality: Rescuers of Jews in Nazi Europe (Free Press, 1988).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 38
12. The Ancient Gears within Us: How Does Change Happen?
For Eric Kandel’s magisterial (the only appropriate word) review of his life’s work, see this written version of his 2000 Nobel Prize lecture: E. Kandel, “The Molecular Biology of Memory Storage: A Dialogue between Genes and Synapses,” Science 294 (2001): 1030.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 1
E. Alnajjar and K. Murase, “A Simple Aplysia-Like Spiking Neural Network to Generate Adaptive Behavior in Autonomous Robots,” Adaptive Behavior 16 (2008): 306.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 2
Footnote: H. Boele et al., “Axonal Sprouting and Formation of Terminals in the Adult Cerebellum during Associative Motor Learning,” Journal of Neuroscience 33 (2013): 17897.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 3
Footnote: M. Srivastava et al., “The Amphimedon queenslandica Genome and the Evolution of Animal Complexity,” Nature 466 (2010): 720.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 4
J. Medina et al., “Parallels between Cerebellum- and Amygdala-Dependent Conditioning,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 3 (2002): 122.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 5
M. Kalinichev et al., “Long-Lasting Changes in Stress-Induced Corticosterone Response and Anxiety-Like Behaviors as a Consequence of Neonatal Maternal Separation in Long-Evans Rats,” Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 73 (2002): 13; B. Aisa et al., “Cognitive Impairment Associated to HPA Axis Hyperactivity after Maternal Separation in Rats,” Psychoneuroendocrinology 32 (2007): 256; B. Aisa et al., “Effects of Maternal Separation on Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Responses, Cognition and Vulnerability to Stress in Adult Female Rats,” Neuroscience 154 (2008): 1218; M. Moffett et al., “Maternal Separation Alters Drug Intake Patterns in Adulthood in Rats,” Biochemical Pharmacology 73 (2007): 321. Interestingly, the effects of transient maternal separation on the development of the offspring’s brain and behavior are heavily due to changes in Mom’s behavior when she is returned: R. Alves et al., “Maternal Separation Effects on Mother Rodents’ Behaviour: A Systematic Review,” Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 117 (2019): 98.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 6
A. Wilber, G. Lin, and C. Wellman, “Glucocorticoid Receptor Blockade in the Posterior Interpositus Nucleus Reverses Maternal Separation–Induced Deficits in Adult Eyeblink Conditioning,” Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 94 (2010): 263; A. Wilber et al., “Neonatal Maternal Separation Alters Adult Eyeblink Conditioning and Glucocorticoid Receptor Expression in the Interpositus Nucleus of the Cerebellum,” Developmental Neurobiology 67 (2011): 751.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 7
J. LeDoux, “Evolution of Human Emotion,” Progress in Brain Research 195 (2012): 431; also see any of LeDoux’s various excellent books on the broad subject, such as J. LeDoux, The Deep History of Ourselves: The Four-Billion-Year Story of How We Got Conscious Brains (Viking, 2019); L. Johnson et al., “A Recurrent Network in the Lateral Amygdala: A Mechanism for Coincidence Detection,” Frontiers in Neural Circuits 2 (2008): 3; W. Haubensak et al., “Genetic Dissection of an Amygdala Microcircuit That Gates Conditioned Fear,” Nature 468 (2010): 270.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 8
P. Zhu and D. Lovinger, “Retrograde Endocannabinoid Signaling in a Postsynaptic Neuron/Synaptic Bouton Preparation from Basolateral Amygdala,” Journal of Neuroscience 25 (2005): 6199; M. Monsey et al., “Chronic Corticosterone Exposure Persistently Elevates the Expression of Memory-Related Genes in the Lateral Amygdala and Enhances the Consolidation of a Pavlovian Fear Memory,” PLoS One 9 (2014): e91530; R. Sobota et al., “Oxytocin Reduces Amygdala Activity, Increases Social Interactions, and Reduces Anxiety-Like Behavior Irrespective of NMDAR Antagonism,” Behavioral Neuroscience 129 (2015): 389; O. Kozanian et al., “Long-Lasting Effects of Prenatal Ethanol Exposure on Fear Learning and Development of the Amygdala,” Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience 12 (2018): 200; E. Pérez-Villegas et al., “Mutation of the HERC 1 Ubiquitin Ligase Impairs Associative Learning in the Lateral Amygdala,” Molecular Neurobiology 55 (2018): 1157.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 9
Footnote: T. Moffitt et al., “Deep-Seated Psychological Histories of COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitance and Resistance,” PNAS Nexus 1 (2022): pgac034.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 10
A. Baddeley, “Working Memory: Looking Back and Looking Forward,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 4 (2003): 829; J. Jonides et al., “The Mind and Brain of Short-Term Memory,” Annual Review of Psychology 59 (2008): 193.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 11
For examples of how the actual circuitry in the brain has these properties, see: D. Zeithamova, A. Dominick, and A. Preston, “Hippocampal and Ventral Medial Prefrontal Activation during Retrieval-Mediated Learning Supports Novel Inference,” Neuron 75 (2012): 168; D. Cai et al., “A Shared Neural Ensemble Links Distinct Contextual Memories Encoded Close in Time,” Nature 534 (2016): 115.
Footnote (p. 294): J. Alvarez, In the Time of the Butterflies (Algonquin Books, 2010).
Footnote (p. 295): J. Harris, “Anorexia Nervosa and Anorexia Miracles: Miss K. R— and St. Catherine of Siena,” JAMA Psychiatry 71 (2014): 12; F. Forcen, “Anorexia Mirabilis: The Practice of Fasting by Saint Catherine of Siena in the Late Middle Ages,” American Journal of Psychiatry 170 (2013): 370; F. Galassi, N. Bender, and M. Habicht, “St. Catherine of Siena (1347–1380 AD): One of the Earliest Historic Cases of Altered Gustatory Perception in Anorexia Mirabilis,” Neurological Sciences 39 (2018): 939.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 12
The picture on the right is of Private Donald Brown, who, at age twenty-four, was killed when his Sherman tank was destroyed by Nazi fire in France in 1944. The unidentified remains of his tank crew were recovered in 1947, and it was not until 2018 that Brown was identified by DNA analysis. The news release about his identification gives no indication of how many family members went to their graves over those seventy-four years never knowing what happened to him. I thank the Defense MIA/POW Accounting Agency for permission to use his image for this expository purpose. More than seventy-two thousand American soldiers remain missing in action from World War II. (You can read the news release at dpaa.mil/News-Stories/News-Releases/PressReleaseArticleView/Article/1647847/funeral-announcement-for-soldier-killed-during-world-war-ii-brown-d/ [inactive].) For an anthropological analysis of the desire we have to know what has happened to the dead, as well as a personal story of a twenty-seven-year wait for such information, see R. Sapolsky, “Why We Want Their Bodies Back,” Discover, January 31, 2002, reprinted in R. Sapolsky, Monkeyluv and Other Essays on Our Lives as Animals (Simon & Schuster/Scribner, 2005).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 13
13. We Really Have Done This Before
E. Magiorkinis et al., “Highlights in the History of Epilepsy: The Last 200 Years,” Epilepsy Research and Treatment 2014 (2014): 582039.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 1
J. Rho and H. White, “Brief History of Anti-seizure Drug Development,” Epilepsia Open 3 (2018): 114.
Footnote (p. 307): J. Russell, Witchcraft in the Middle Ages (Cornell University Press, 1972), p. 234.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 2
See, for example: R. Sapolsky and G. Steinberg, “Gene Therapy for Acute Neurological Insults,” Neurology 10 (1999): 1922.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 3
A. Walker, “Murder or Epilepsy?,” Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 133 (1961): 430; J. Livingston, “Epilepsy and Murder,” Journal of the American Medical Association 188 (1964): 172; M. Ito et al., “Subacute Postictal Aggression in Patients with Epilepsy,” Epilepsy & Behavior 10 (2007): 611; J. Gunn, “Epileptic Homicide: A Case Report,” British Journal of Psychiatry 132 (1978): 510; C. Hindler, “Epilepsy and Violence,” British Journal of Psychiatry 155 (1989): 246; N. Pandya et al., “Epilepsy and Homicide,” Neurology 57 (2001): 1780.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 4
S. Fazel et al., “Risk of Violent Crime in Individuals with Epilepsy and Traumatic Brain Injury: A 35-Year Swedish Population Study,” PLoS Medicine 8 (2011): e1001150; C. Älstrom, Study of Epilepsy and Its Clinical, Social and Genetic Aspects (Monksgaard, 1950); J. Kim et al., “Characteristics of Epilepsy Patients Who Committed Violent Crimes: Report from the National Forensic Hospital,” Journal of Epilepsy Research 1 (2011): 13; D. Treiman, “Epilepsy and Violence: Medical and Legal Issues,” Epilepsia 27 (1986): S77; D. Hill and D. Pond, “Reflections on One Hundred Capital Cases Submitted to Electroencephalography,” Journal of Mental Science 98 (1952): 23; E. Rodin, “Psychomotor Epilepsy and Aggressive Behavior,” Archives of General Psychiatry 28 (1973): 210.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 5
J. Falret, “De l’etat mental des epileptiques,” Archives generales de médicine 16 (1860): 661.
Footnote: P. Pichot, “Circular Insanity, 150 Years On,” Bulletin de l’académie nationale de médecine 188 (2004): 275.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 6
S. Fernandes et al., “Epilepsy Stigma Perception in an Urban Area of a Limited-Resource Country,” Epilepsy & Behavior 11 (2007): 25; A. Jacoby, “Epilepsy and Stigma: An Update and Critical Review,” Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports 8 (2008): 339; G. Baker et al., “Perceived Impact of Epilepsy in Teenagers and Young Adults: An International Survey,” Epilepsy and Behavior 12 (2008): 395; R. Kale, “Bringing Epilepsy Out of the Shadows,” British Medical Journal 315 (1997): 2.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 7
G. Krauss, L. Ampaw, and A. Krumholz, “Individual State Driving Restrictions for People with Epilepsy in the US,” Neurology 57 (2001): 1780.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 8
C. Bonanos, “What New York Should Learn from the Park Slope Crash That Killed Two Children,” Intelligencer, New York, March 30, 2018.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 9
T. Moore and K. Sheehy, “Driver in Crash That Killed Two Kids Suffers from MS, Seizures,” New York Post, March 6, 2018.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 10
C. Moynihan, “Driver Charged with Manslaughter in Deaths of 2 Children,” New York Times, May 3, 2018; A. Winston, “Driver Who Killed Two Children in Brooklyn Is Found Dead,” New York Times, November 7, 2018.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 11
L. Italiano, “Judge Gives Trash-Haul Killer Life,” New York Post, November 19, 2009; B. Aaron, “Driver Who Killed 3 People on Bronx Sidewalk Charged with Manslaughter,” StreetsBlog NYC, September 20, 2016; B. Aaron, “Cab Driver Pleads to Homicide for Killing 2 on Bronx Sidewalk While Off Epilepsy Meds,” StreetsBlog NYC, November 13, 2017.
Footnote: S. Billakota, O. Devinsky, and K. Kim, “Why We Urgently Need Improved Epilepsy Therapies for Adult Patients,” Neuropharmacology 170 (2019): 107855; K. Meador et al., “Neuropsychological and Neurophysiologic Effects of Carbamazepine and Levetiracetam,” Neurology 69 (2007): 2076; D. Buck et al., “Factors Influencing Compliance with Antiepileptic Drug Regimes,” Seizure 6 (1997): 87.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 12
Italiano, “Judge Gives Trash-Haul Killer Life.”
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 13
Second footnote: A. Weil, The Natural Mind: An Investigation of Drugs and the Higher Consciousness (Houghton Mifflin, 1998), p. 211.
Third footnote: D. Rosenhan, “On Being Sane in Insane Places,” Science 179 (1973): 250; S. Cahalan, The Great Pretender (Canongate Trade, 2019); also see: A. Abbott, “On the Troubling Trail of Psychiatry’s Pseudopatients Stunt,” Nature 574 (2019): 622.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 14
P. Maki et al., “Predictors of Schizophrenia—a Review,” British Medical Bulletin 73 (2005): 1; S. Stilo, M. Di Forti, and R. Murray, “Environmental Risk Factors for Schizophrenia: Implications for Prevention,” Neuropsychiatry 1 (2011): 457; E. Walker and R. Lewine, “Prediction of Adult-Onset Schizophrenia from Childhood Home Movies of the Patients,” American Journal of Psychiatry 147 (1990): 1052.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 15
S. Bo et al., “Risk Factors for Violence among Patients with Schizophrenia,” Clinical Psychology Reviews 31 (2014): 711; B. Rund, “A Review of Factors Associated with Severe Violence in Schizophrenia,” Nordic Journal of Psychiatry 72 (2018): 561.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 16
J. Lieberman and O. Ogas, Shrinks: The Untold Story of Psychiatry (Little Brown, 2015); E. Torrey, Freudian Fraud: The Malignant Effect of Freud’s Theory on American Thought and Culture (HarperCollins, 1992).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 17
A. Harrington, Mind Fixers: Psychiatry’s Troubled Search for the Biology of Mental Illness (Norton, 2019); see Torrey, Freudian Fraud.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 18
The quote regarding the conceptual advance of blaming schizophrenogenic families, rather than solely women, comes from P. Bart, “Sexiam and Social Science: From the Gilded Cage to the Iron Cage, or, the Perils of Pauline,” Journal of Marriage and the Family (November 1971), 741.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 19
Stilo, Di Forti, and Murray, “Environmental Risk Factors for Schizophrenia”; Maki et al., “Predictors of Schizophrenia.”
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 20
R. Gentry, D. Schuweiler, and M. Roesch, “Dopamine Signals Related to Appetitive and Aversive Events in Paradigms That Manipulate Reward and Avoidability,” Brain Research 1713 (2019): 80; P. Glimcher, “Understanding Dopamine and Reinforcement Learning: The Dopamine Reward Prediction Error Hypothesis,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108, supp. 3 (2011): 15647; M. Happel, “Dopaminergic Impact on Local and Global Cortical Circuit Processing during Learning,” Behavioral Brain Research 299 (2016): 32.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 21
A. Boyd et al., “Dopamine, Cognitive Biases and Assessment of Certainty: A Neurocognitive Model of Delusions,” Clinical Psychology Review 54 (2017): 96; C. Chun, P. Brugger, and T. Kwapil, “Aberrant Salience across Levels of Processing in Positive and Negative Schizotypy,” Frontiers of Psychology 10 (2019): 2073; T. Winton-Brown et al., “Dopaminergic Basis of Salience Dysregulation in Psychosis,” Trends in Neurosciences 37 (2014): 85.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 22
P. Mallikarjun et al., “Aberrant Salience Network Functional Connectivity in Auditory Verbal Hallucinations: A First Episode Psychosis Sample,” Translational Psychiatry 8 (2018): 69; K. Schonauer et al., “Hallucinatory Modalities in Prelingually Deaf Schizophrenic Patients: A Retrospective Analysis of 67 Cases,” Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 98 (1998): 377; J. Atkinson, “The Perceptual Characteristics of Voice-Hallucinations in Deaf People: Insights into the Nature of Subvocal Thought and Sensory Feedback Loops,” Schizophrenia Bulletin 32 (2006): 701; E. Anglemyer and C. Crespi, “Misinterpretation of Psychiatric Illness in Deaf Patients: Two Case Reports,” Case Reports in Psychiatry 2018 (2018): 3285153; B. Engmann, “Peculiarities of Schizophrenic Diseases in Prelingually Deaf Persons,” MMW Fortschritte der Medizin 153 supp. 1 (2011): 10. It is generally assumed (including by me) that everyone has an inner voice in their heads; this turns out to be wrong: D. Coffey, “Does Everyone Have an Inner Monologue?,” Livescience, June 12, 2021. I thank Hilary Roberts for sending me to this source.
