Normal Women, page 80
Baptiste, Mona, 540
‘Barbie’ the doll, 568
Barker, Jane, 243–4, 258
Barker, Lillias, 439, 440
Barking Abbey, 36, 43, 76
Barrett Browning, Elizabeth, 369, 385–6
Bartholomew Fair, London, 225, 236, 264
Bartlett, Lucy, 409
Barton, Elizabeth (‘Nun of Kent’), 114
Bastardy Act (1610), 149
Bath and Wells, Ralph of Shrewsbury, Bishop of, 67–8
Bathurst, Frances, Lady, 257
Baudri of Borgeuil, 12
Bayeux Tapestry, 5–6
bear-baiting, 164
Beauchamp, Angareta de, 24
Beaufort, Margaret, 102, 104
Beaumont, Lia de, 388–9
Beaumont de Vescy, Isabella, 47
Bede, Venerable, 1, 61
Beene, Audrey, 158
Beeton, Isabella, 460, 461
‘beguinages’ (spiritual communities), 16, 111
Behn, Aphra, 132, 145, 243
Bell, Gertrude, 403, 464
Belle, Dido Elizabeth, 296–7
Bennett, Etheldred, 329
Benson, Minnie, 434
Berkeley, Lady Anne, 132
Berkeley, Lady Isabel, 24
Berners, Juliana, 166
Bernold of Constance, 48
Besant, Annie, 413, 414–15, 429–30, 430
Bess of Hardwick, 116, 161
Beveridge Report (1942), 529
Bibbesworth, Walter de, 24
biology: medical theories about female bodies, 59, 63, 248, 253, 262, 288, 425–6, 460; medieval thought on, 63–4; female genitals, 63, 248, 425–6, 438, 548, 565, 574–6; idea of only two sexes, 213–16, 229, 332, 334, 367, 421–2, 551–5, 558, 562, 565, 566, 570; Enlightenment theories about women’s bodies, 214–15; class-based judgements on women, 248, 253, 262, 310, 333, 334, 336, 427; menstruation, 423–4, 425; X and Y chromosomes, 555, 568–9, 576 see also sexual identity
Bird, Anne, 146
Black, Clementina, 413
Black Death see Great Pestilence (Black Death, 1348)
Blackstone, William, 212, 284
Blackwell, Edward, 231
Blackwell, Elizabeth, 223, 459
Bletchley Park, 490
Bloch, Iwan, 441
Bohun, Mary de, 81
Boleyn, Anne, 114, 166
Bonaventure, Thomasine, 104–5
Bondfield, Margaret, 479
Boniface VIII, Pope, 60
Bonny, Anne, 271–2, 272
Booth, Catherine, 457–8
Bosanquet, Mary, 326
Bourke, Joanna, 520
Bourne, Dr Aleck, 485–7
Bowen, Susan, 146
Bowlby, John, 530
Boyle, Robert, 169
Bracton, Henry de, 64
Bradlaugh, Charles, 430
Bradley, Catherine, 434
Bradley, Jane, 146–7
Brathwaite, Richard, 229
Brayne, Ellen, 164
Brayne, Margaret, 164
‘breadwinner wage,’ 210, 312–13, 363, 398, 427, 432, 530, 545, 546, 578; invention of term, 311, 572; and Say’s ‘Law of Unequal Exchange,’ 311; and male trade unions, 313, 417; and ‘separate spheres’ doctrine, 313, 343, 357, 365, 482–3, 484, 529, 567, 572; and de-skilling of jobs, 413; and undercutting of men’s wages, 415–16
Brembole, Matilda and Isabella, 73
brewing, 10, 13, 20, 33, 49, 78, 163, 183–4, 205, 224
Brews, Margery, 106
Bridget of Sweden, 24
Bristol, 41, 117, 122, 182, 196, 209, 280, 306, 342, 473; Jewish community, 120, 162; Prince Rupert’s attack on, 142, 179
British Empire: and racist narratives/hierarchies, 298, 339, 431, 442; demands for healthy children, 330, 375; women missionaries, 339; First War of Indian Independence (1857), 340, 365; and Queen Victoria, 442, 443; need for female doctors, 459; race riots against demobbed men of colour (1919), 473–4; attitudes to in 1930s, 482–3
British Union of Fascists (BUF), 480–2
Brittain, Vera, 462–3
Brown, Helen Gurley, 548–9
Brown, Isaac Baker, 426, 574–5
Browne, Stella, 487
Bryan, Margaret, 329
Buckingham and Chandos, Anna Grenville, first Duchess of, 394
Burbage, Richard, 164–5
Burke, Edmund, 381
Burnet, Elizabeth, 256
Burney, Fanny, 253
Burney, Sarah, 350–2
Bury St Edmunds, 32, 178–9
Bury St Edmunds Missal, 57, 59
Bushell, Violette, 492
business/entrepreneurship: and nunneries, 14, 15; in medieval period, 17, 19, 20, 21–2, 26–35, 49, 68–71, 77–9, 82, 83–4, 104; and femmes sole status, 22, 49, 70, 78; women’s opportunities after Black Death, 68–71, 77–9, 82, 83–4; barriers to credit for women, 79, 184, 231, 314, 321; wealthy women in fifteenth-century London, 79; wives as unpaid managers, 84, 186, 455; silkwomen, 104, 159, 223–4; women in 1500s/1600s, 105, 124, 159; and Tudor labour laws, 148–9; women registering patents, 162; ‘casting of accounts,’ 163; roles for ‘middling class’ women, 163; exclusion of women, 184, 229, 232, 324, 555; in post-Restoration century, 222–3, 224–5, 233–5; and Eleanor Coade, 321–3; Company Acts (1856–62), 324; limited liability, 324
Butler, Josephine, 399, 400, 401
Buttery, Isabel, 180
Buxton, Priscilla, 307–8
Cable Street, Battle of, 481–2
Cade’s rebellion (1450), 75–6
Caernarvon Castle, 48
Caird, Mona, 394–5
Calvert, Elizabeth, 217
Calvin, John, 120
Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, 534–5
Campbell, Dorothy, 449
Canterbury, 171
Carey, Catherine, 120
Carey, Elizabeth, 145
Carisbrooke Castle, 144, 145–6
Carleton, Mary, 268
Carlisle, Lucy Hay, Lady, 146
Carlisle Munitionettes (football team), 452
Carlyle, Jane Welsh, 380
Caroline of Brunswick, Queen, 341
Carpenter, Edward, 431, 433–4, 435–6, 437–8
Carr, Ann, 327
Carter, Ann, 191, 192–3
Carter, Elizabeth, 261
Casey, Louise, 525
Castle, Barbara, 538
castle building, Norman, 12, 13
Castle Donington, 211
Castlemaine, Barbara Palmer, Lady, 256
Cates, Fatima, 458
Catherine of Aragon, 110, 114, 155, 158, 166
Catherine of Braganza, Queen, 237
Catholic Church: church courts, 2, 7, 26, 50, 51, 60, 83, 105; usury laws, 9, 20, 26–7, 28; great religious houses, 14–15, 68; cult of Mary, Mother of God, 14, 65, 87, 557; doctrine of ‘purgatory,’ 14; female martyrs, 16, 113, 114, 119; dogma of women’s inferiority, 21, 64, 68, 121, 557, 562–3; Bridgettine order, 24; ‘morality plays’ or ‘passion plays,’ 35; Gilbertine order, 36; training of priests, 37; view of prostitution, 42, 88; medieval views on women’s sexuality, 59–61, 71–2, 127; women’s priestly role during Black Death, 67–8; visionaries and mystics, 95, 113–14; impact of Reformation on women, 110–12, 113–14, 203; Inquisition in Spain, 115, 162; Northern Rising (1569), 116, 194; women fleeing Elizabethan England, 121; and Anne of Denmark, 139; women’s defence of local churches, 194; Anne Stagg’s petition against (1642), 197–8; overthrow of James II, 219–20; ‘Gordon Riots’ against (1780), 349–52
Caus Castle, 160, 185, 204
Cavanagh, Christian ‘Kit,’ 269–71
Cave, Lady Mary, 145
Caxton, Thomas, 103
Cecil, Mildred, 166
Cellier, Elizabeth, 230
Chagos Islands, 541
Chamberlain, Beatrice, 403
Chapuys, Eustace, 111
charcoal burners, 13, 31
Charing Cross Hospital, London, 440, 500, 549–50, 566
charity/philanthropy: female philanthropists, 37, 80, 103, 104, 105, 343–4, 364–5, 396–8, 429–30, 470; declines in upper classes after Black Death, 72, 147; and Reformation closure of religious houses, 147; and emerging ‘middling classes,’ 149; ‘improving’ and charitable committees, 343; and prostitution, 344, 364–5; women offered official posts, 398
Charke, Charlotte, 268
Charles I, 140, 141, 144–6, 167, 188–9, 194; trial and execution, 193, 199, 202
Charles II, King, 149, 180, 207, 213, 215, 217–18, 232, 237; as Prince Charles, 145, 146; sexually permissive court of, 154–5, 203, 256
Charlotte, Queen, 224
Chartism, 337, 341, 357, 373
Chatsworth estate, 161
Chatterjee, Debjani, 537
Chaucer, Geoffrey, 65, 80, 93–7
Chaytor, Lady Peregrina, 288
chess, 22
Chester, 142, 183, 186
Cheyne, Margaret, 113
‘child migration schemes,’ 532
Child Poverty Action Group, 530–1
Child Support Act (1991), 539
childbirth: death in, 39, 58, 286–7, 330, 428, 485, 487; moral panic about infanticide in 1600s, 149; regulation/control of, 185–6; and inexperienced male doctors, 230, 286–7, 330, 428; limited access to forceps, 287, 326; and social class, 287, 326, 330, 427–8; medical opinion on pain in, 288–9, 444; spreading of infections by practitioners, 330, 428, 487; Queen Victoria accepts chloroform, 444; professionalisation of midwives, 475; ultrasound scans, 568
child-rearing/childcare: breast-feeding, 39–40, 289, 367; at Tudor courts, 104; ‘blank slate’ theory, 126–7; coaching of female inferiority, 126–7, 395, 565, 566; medieval tradition, 126, 564–5; wet nursing as elite practice, 126, 289; first manuals published, 169; foundling hospitals, 302, 564; and Romantic movement, 367; Victorian fixing of sexual identity, 367, 421–2; expansion of expert advisors, 483; ‘attachment theory,’ 530; nursery and pre-school education, 532; emphasis on male power/authority, 571; and women today, 572–3
Chiswick Women’s Family Aid, 514
Cholmley, Lady, 143
Christianity: Creation story, 3; denigration of women, 5; pilgrim ways, 13; female martyrs, 16, 113, 114, 115, 116–19, 129; spiritual equality, 67–8, 122–3, 557–60; Henry VIII’s Compendium Compertorum, 109; women exiles from the religious houses, 111; women preachers, 122, 123, 326–7, 457–8; slaves freed by baptism, 156, 238; diaries as spiritual exercises, 160, 168, 241, 242; female leadership during civil wars, 179–80; ‘Dissenting Academies’ emerge, 228; opinion on pain in childbirth, 288–9, 444; Female Revivalist Society, 327; women missionaries in British Empire, 339; same-sex missions, 435; Victorian women professionals, 457; spiritual arguments for patriarchy, 557–60 see also Catholic Church; Church of England; Protestant church
Christ’s Hospital, London, 171
Church of England, 111, 180, 326, 457, 560; debates over female ministry, 68, 458, 557–60; and the Marriage Act (1753), 251, 264, 371–2; evangelical revival (from 1780), 328, 368, 375; Lambeth Synod (1920), 458; exemption from sex equality legislation, 559, 560
Churchill, Winston, A History of the English-Speaking Peoples, 1, 3
civil service, 163, 454, 460, 474, 524
civil war (1135–54), 23, 43, 45
civil wars, English (1642–51), 3, 140–6, 168, 176–7, 178–80, 196, 198, 200, 215
Clemence of Barking, 36
Clerkenwell Priory, 73, 75
clerks and typists, 459, 474
Clifford, Lady Anne, 144, 166, 241
Clifford, Maud, 85
climate, 13, 67, 147
clothing: medieval re-making, 32; identifying prostitutes, 42, 134, 135; specialist skills at court, 104; at Tudor and Stuart courts, 132, 133; the ‘mantua,’ 235; for elite women, 325, 367–8, 385, 422–3; fashions disabling elite women, 367–8, 422–3; whalebone corsets, 422–3; of babies/children, 422, 564–5, 566, 567–8; the petticoat, 422; unisex during Second World War, 499; fashions from 1960s, 550, 568
Coade, Eleanor, 321–3
Cobbe, Frances Power, 433
Cobbett, William, 310, 343
Cobham, Eleanor, 75
Cockburn, Catherine (née Trotter), 260
cockfighting, 164
Coke, Frances, 157
Coke, Sir Edward, 139
Cold War, 533
Colledge, Cecilia, 543
College of Physicians, 171–2
common land: enclosure of, 2, 10–11, 147, 149–50, 187–90, 207–11, 320–1, 325, 337, 571; and forest law, 10–11; strips of in feudal era, 10, 13; great eighteenth-century country houses built on, 207–8
Commonwealth (1649–60), 154, 161, 180, 196, 199–200, 203, 207
Communist Party of Great Britain, 480
Compiègne, Marie de (poet), 37
Coningsby, Juliana, 146
Conservative Party, 477, 526, 528, 529, 538
contraception: Church prohibition of, 59, 60, 71–2; and women authors of 1700s, 242; unreliability of, 286, 336; condoms, 287, 428–9; cervical caps, 429; class-based availability of advice, 429, 430, 485; and Marie Stopes, 429, 485; and BUF, 481; ‘Gillick Competence’ test, 538–9; liberalisation of law on (1967), 541–2; morning after pill, 542; birth control pill, 548 see also abortion
Conway, Lady Anne, 240, 241
Cooke, Anne, 166
Cooper, Charlotte, 446
Cooper, Edith, 434
Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, 74
Correlli, Marie, 434
Cosmopolitan, 548–9, 568
Cossey, Caroline, 553, 554
Cotswold ‘Olimpick Games,’ 180, 181
Courtenay, Katherine, 104
courtly love tradition, 64–6, 93, 140, 216, 248, 332; Chaucer’s ‘The Knight’s Tale,’ 95–8; sexualisation of, 97–100, 128, 153, 334, 563; Le Morte d’Arthur, 103–4
Coventry, 35, 142, 182–3
Cowell, Roberta, 550, 551
Craft, Ellen, 307, 337
Cranmer, Thomas, 114, 117, 166
cricket, 245, 247, 448, 456, 543
crime and disorder: and women’s lack of presence in law, 21, 49, 190, 191–2, 195, 196, 211, 212; ‘fencing’ of stolen goods, 32, 42; violent women, 50; marriage related abductions/kidnappings, 52–3, 85–7, 103, 285, 371, 394; marital murders, 72, 77, 150, 202, 277, 278–9, 285, 361, 504–16; pregnant women pleading their bellies, 117, 119, 147, 152, 272, 281, 359; ‘Moll Cutpurse,’ 136; murder by women servants, 165; ‘crimes of hunger,’ 191–2, 211–12; Riot Act (1714), 212–13; official attitudes harden in 1700s, 212; transportation, 218, 219, 232, 281, 360; female pirates, 271–2; women thieves and fraudsters, 279–81, 359–60, 371, 385; highwaywoman, 281; idea of female frailty, 283, 359–60; rioting men dressed as women, 349, 352; use of chloroform, 360; abortionists, 361, 485; Offences against the Person Act (1828), 361; public hanging ended (1868), 361; Counting Dead Women website, 504–16; death penalty abolished (1965), 504 see also rape/sexual violence
Crimean War, 299–301
Cromer, Evelyn Baring, Earl of, 404
Cromwell, Lady Margaret and Sir William, 79
Cromwell, Oliver, 141, 144, 179–80, 199
Cromwell, Thomas, 109, 111, 132
croquet, 446
crusades, 2, 12, 23, 27, 43, 45, 47–8
cucking stools, 50–1, 151
Cudworth, Damaris, 220
Curtain Theatre, 164
Curthose, Robert, 48
Cushman, Charlotte, 433
cycling, 450–1, 569
Dagenham, Ford strike at, 524, 533
Damer, Anne Seymour, 379–80
Darwin, Charles, 420, 433, 566
Davies, Lady Eleanor, 179–80, 240
Davison, Emily Wilding, 406
Debenhem, Sir Gilbert of, 102
Defoe, Daniel, 210, 224, 271
Delaroche, Paul, 129, 130
demographic issues: population figures, 1, 9, 13, 20, 67; population of London, 20, 78; average age of death in medieval era, 58; impact of Black Death, 67–72, 78; number of single women in seventeenth century, 206; infant mortality, 210, 289, 330, 427, 428, 564; population decline post-Restoration, 210, 277; 1851 census, 320, 323–4, 326, 377; low birth rates caused by rickets, 427; low birth rate of the officer class, 429; impact of First World War, 431; falling birth-rate inter-war, 483
Denny Abbey, 36
Derby, Lady Charlotte, 143
Devonshire, Georgiana, Duchess of, 340, 379–80, 382
Dick, Kerr Ladies (football team), 452, 452–3
Diego Garcia military base, 541
Dillon, Laurence Michael, 500
diplomats/ambassadors, 111, 157, 388, 403, 524–5
Ditta, Anwar, 535–6, 536
divorce, 3, 7, 58, 84, 203, 254, 375–6, 393; ritual of ‘wife sale,’ 84–5, 201, 203, 256, 372; folk divorces, 203, 256, 372; Victorian reform of law, 394; Matrimonial Causes Act (1923), 396; ‘Codrington divorce,’ 434–5; Divorce Reform Act (1969), 545; White v White (1996), 545
Dixie, Lady Florence, 451–2
Dod, Lottie, 446
Dods, Mary Diana, 386–7
Domesday Book, 5, 6–7, 23
domestic service: in medieval period, 17, 20, 30–1, 32, 34, 37, 41, 70; and slaves kidnapped from Africa, 155, 156, 238, 291–2, 295, 298; and rise of ‘middling classes,’ 162–3, 165, 456; pay gap in, 163, 210, 323; ill-treatment of servants, 165; murder by female servants, 165, 361; and female apprentices, 182–3; growth of in nineteenth-century, 323, 455–6, 461; work as widely hated by women workers, 323, 455–6; housework in nineteenth-century censuses, 454, 455; flight from after Great War, 474
domestic violence, 125–6, 372, 393, 394, 396, 504–16; community reaction to, 52, 195, 196, 285; levels of male violence permitted in marriage, 52, 77, 150, 201–2, 284–5; and emerging middling classes, 202, 285; Victorian moral panic on, 343; as ‘gateway’ crime, 514–15; Battered Woman Syndrome, 515 see also rape/sexual violence; violence, male
Domestic Violence and Matrimonial Proceedings Act (1976), 514
Doncaster, 224
Dorchester, 193
Dormer, Anne, 256
Douglass, Dorothea, 446
Dover Castle, 45–6
Dowriche, Anne, 169
Drummond, Mrs Flora, 418
ducking stools, 51, 151, 195
Dumas, Alexandre, The Lady of the Camellias, 425
Dunbar and March, Agnes Randolph, Countess of, 47
dust collectors, 317–18
