Timeline of Kings and Queens, page 14
France Henry IV, the first Bourbon king of France, converts to Catholicism, ending the French religious wars. Germany and the Holy Roman Empire Emperor Rudolf II starts a long and destructive war against the Ottoman Turks. Montenegro Ruvim II Boljević-Njegos becomes prince-bishop. Wallachia Mihail the Brave becomes prince, uniting Wallachia with Transylvania and Moldavia – he is already ruler of both countries.
1595
Sweden gains Estonia in the Treaty of Teusina, with Russia. Venice Tommaso Mocenigo is elected doge. Marino Grimani becomes doge.
1597
Ireland A rebellion against the English is led by Hugh O’Neill, earl of Tyrone.
1598
Spain and Portugal Philip II dies, having almost bankrupt Spain with global exploration and colonial expansion; Philip III succeeds him as king of Spain and Portugal; during his reign, the Moors are finally expelled from the Spanish peninsula.
Russia Fyodor I dies childless; regent Boris Godunov seizes the throne.
1599
Sweden Sigismund’s Catholicism leads to him being deposed by his father’s brother, the warrior-king Charles IX; during his reign, Charles takes his army as far as Moscow and attacks Poland, Denmark and Finland.
Rise of Empire
1600–1799
1600
Wallachia Simion Movilă, illegitimate son of Mihnea the Turned-Turk, becomes prince.
1601
Wallachia Radu Mihnea, son of Mihnea the Turned-Turk, becomes prince.
1602
Wallachia Simion Movilă becomes prince for the second time, and then loses power to Radu Şerban.
1603
Great Britain Elizabeth I, last of the Tudor monarchs, dies without issue; the Union of the Crowns takes place; James VI of Scotland, great-great-grandson of Henry VIII, also becomes James I of England, the first king of England from the House of Stuart.
1604
Monaco Hercule, lord of Monaco, is murdered; his 6-year-old son, Honoré II, becomes ruler under the regency of his father’s brother-in-law, Frederico Landi; Honoré is the first ruler to be called prince of Monaco.
1605
England The Gunpowder Plot to blow up king and Parliament fails.
Rome Cardinal Alessandro Ottaviano de’ Medici is elected pope as Leo XI; he reigns for just 27 days; Cardinal Camillo Borghese is elected pope as Paul V. Russia Fyodor II becomes tsar, aged 16, on 10 June; the Time of Troubles begins when on 20 July he and his mother are strangled by a group of discontented boyars (high-ranking aristocrats); False Dimitri, an impostor claiming to be the son of Ivan the Terrible, becomes tsar.
1606
Venice Leonardo Donato is elected doge. Russia Tsar False Dimitri is shot dead, probably by supporters of Prince Vasili Shuisky, after a reign lasting 10 months; Vasili IV Shuisky becomes tsar, but is never generally recognized as such.
1608
Germany The Protestant Union, a coalition of Protestant German states with the objective of defending the rights, lands and person of its members, is formed in Germany by Frederick IV. Liechtenstein Karl I, prince of Liechtenstein, founds the Princely Family of Liechtenstein, after being created hereditary prince by the heir to the throne of the Holy Roman Empire, Archduke Mathias; the honour is given for his support for the archduke in a land dispute with his father, Emperor Rudolf II.
1609
Netherlands The Twelve Years’ Truce virtually ensures indepen-dence for the Netherlands. Germany and the Holy Roman Empire Becoming increasingly unstable and ineffectual, Rudolf II is imprisoned and stripped of effective power by his brother Matthias in Prague.
1610
France Henri IV is stabbed to death by fanatical Catholic François Ravaillac, while riding in his coach; Louis XIII becomes king, aged 13; his mother, Marie de’ Medici, rules as regent until 1614; with the help of his chief minister, Cardinal Richelieu, appointed 1624, he will become the epitome of the absolute monarch. Sweden Gustav Adolf II, widely known as Gustavus Adolphus, becomes king; he leads Sweden successfully in the Thirty Years’ War, invading Germany and creating a small empire. Wallachia The Hungarian Gabriel Báthory, prince of Transylvania, seizes power. Russia Vasili IV Shuisky is deposed and becomes a monk; the country is governed by a council of Seven Boyars until 1612; they elect as king Władysław IV Vasa, son of the Swedish King Gustav I, but he never takes the throne, due to unrest and his father’s opposition.
1611
Germany and the Holy Roman Empire Rudolf II is forced to cede his crowns to his brother Matthias. Wallachia Radu Mihnea returns to power for the second time, is ousted by Radu Şerban and then returns to power once again.
1612
Venice Marcantonio Memmo is elected doge. Holy Roman Empire Matthias, also king of Hungary and king of Bohemia, is crowned Holy Roman Emperor.
1613
Russia Aged 17, Mikhail I Fyodorovich Romanov is unanimously elected tsar of Russia by a national assembly; he is the first king of the Romanov dynasty, which will rule Russia until 1917.
1614
Hungary Transylvanian Prince Bethlen Gabor comes to power.
1615
Venice Giovanni Bembo is elected doge.
1616
Wallachia Gabriel Movilă, son of Simion, becomes prince, he is replaced soon after by Alexandru Iliaş.
1617
Bohemia Catholic Archduke Ferdinand, son of Charles II of Austria, becomes king.
1618
Venice Nicolò Donato is elected doge; Antonio Priuli is elected doge. Hungary Ferdinand II becomes king. Wallachia Gabriel Movilă returns to the throne.
1619
Holy Roman Empire Ferdinand II, nephew of Maximilian II and king of Bohemia and Hungary, becomes emperor; his suppression of Protestantism marks the early years of the Thirty Years’ War.
1620
Navarre The Kingdom of Navarre is merged into France; French kings use the title ‘King of Navarre’ until the French Revolution in 1791; it is revived from 1814 to 1830 during the restoration of the French monarchy. Wallachia Radhu Mihnea returns to power for the fourth time.
1621
Spain and Portugal Philip IV becomes king of Spain and Philip III of Portugal; during his reign, Spain goes into decline. Rome Cardinal Alessandro Ludovisi is elected pope as Gregory XV.
1622
England James I dissolves Parliament.
1623
Venice Francesco Contarini is elected doge. Rome Cardinal Maffeo Barberini is elected pope as Urban VIII; he is the last pope to expand the papal territory by force of arms. Wallachia Alexandru Coconul, son of Radhu Mihneal, becomes prince.
1624
Venice Giovanni Corner is elected doge.
1625
Great Britain Charles I becomes king and dissolves the English Parliament. Denmark Christian IV enters the war against Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II. Hungary Ferdinand III, son of Ferdinand II, becomes king.
1626
Denmark Christian IV loses the Battle of Lutter.
1627
Liechtenstein Karl Eusebius becomes the second prince of Liechtenstein, aged 16; he will restore his lands after the ravages of the Thirty Years’ War, and becomes a patron of architecture. Bohemia The hereditary rule of the Habsburgs is confirmed. Wallachia Alexandru Iliaş returns to power.
1628
England The Petition of Right is created; Parliament curtails the King’s powers.
1629
England Charles I dissolves Parliament again and rules personally until 1640. Wallachia Leon Tomşa becomes prince.
1630
Sweden Gustavus Adolphus enters the war against Ferdinand II. Venice Nicolò Contarini is elected doge.
1631
Venice Francesco Erizzo is elected doge.
1632
Sweden Gustavus Adolphus is victorious, but dies in the Battle of Lützen; aged just 6, Queen Christina takes the throne; Axel Oxenstierna, lord high chancellor of Sweden, becomes regent; Christina is brought up as a prince and becomes known as the ‘Girl King’. Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Władysław IV Vasa, son of Sigismund IV Vasa, is elected king; during his reign, he prevents the Commonwealth from being embroiled in the Thirty Years’ War and defends it successfully from invasion. Wallachia Matei Basarab becomes prince; he spends much of his reign fighting off Moldavian incursions.
1633
Monaco Philip IV of Spain recognizes Monaco as a principality, confirming its rulers’ right to be called prince.
1636
Germany Ferdinand III is elected king. Montenegro On the death of Ruvim II Boljević-Njegos, the prince-bishopric remains vacant until 1639.
1637
Holy Roman Empire Ferdinand III, king of Germany, Hungary and Bohemia, becomes emperor.
1638
Scotland Scottish Presbyterians sign the Solemn League and Covenant, in effect a treaty between Scotland and the English Parliamentarians, agreeing to the preservation of the reformed religion in Scotland and its promotion in England and Ireland.
1639
Scotland The First Bishops’ War breaks out between Charles I and the Scottish Church. Montenegro Mardarije I Kornečanin becomes prince-bishop.
1640
England The Long Parliament takes place (until 1660).
Scotland The Second Bishops’ War in Britain ends with the Treaty of Ripon. Monaco reverts from Spanish to French protection under the Treaty of Péronne. Portugal A revolution elevates João IV to the Portuguese throne, first king of the House of Braganza, launching the protracted Portuguese Restoration war in which Portugal fights against Castile, until 1668.
1642
England Civil war erupts in England between Cavaliers (Royalists) and Roundheads (Parliamentarians); it lasts until 1647.
1643
England The Solemn League and Covenant is signed by the English Parliament. France Louis XIV, ‘the Sun King’, becomes king, aged 5; Cardinal Mazarin is his chief minister.
1644
England Oliver Cromwell wins the Battle of Marston Moor. Holy Roman Empire Ferdinand III gives the rulers of the German states the right to conduct their own foreign policy, in an effort to gain allies in negotiations with the French and the Swedes; in reality, this decision helps to erode imperial authority in the Holy Roman Empire. Rome Cardinal Giovanni Battista Pamphilj is elected pope as Innocent X.
1645
England Cromwell forms his New Model Army; Parliamentarians win the Battle of Naseby. Russia Alexis I becomes tsar, aged 16.
The New Model Army
Formed in 1645
At the very start of the English Civil War, Parliament relied on soldiers who were recruited by large landowners who supported their cause. However, in February 1645, Parliament decided they needed to form their own army of professional soldiers and made General Thomas Fairfax its commander-in-chief. Oliver Cromwell, who was in charge of the recruitment for the cavalry, believed that the New Model Army, as it became known, should only have men who truly believed in what they were fighting for. Where possible he recruited men who, like himself, held strong Puritan views.
The New Model Army was a military force that was based on a person’s ability rather than their position in society. It was made up mainly of light cavalry and the riders wore thick leather jerkins for protection, rather than heavy armour which would have slowed down their horses. Discipline was strict and the training was tough and thorough. The first major battle for the New Model Army was the Battle of Naseby in June 1645, where over 1,000 Royalist soldiers were killed and another 4,500 taken prisoner. After such a major defeat the Royalists never really regained their strength.
1646
Scotland Charles I surrenders to the Scots. Venice Francesco Molin is elected the 100th doge of Venice. Bohemia Ferdinand, son of Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand III, becomes king.
1647
England Charles I is handed over to the English Parliament; he escapes and makes a secret treaty with the Scots. Hungary Ferdinand, already king of Bohemia, becomes king.
1648
Scotland invades England and is defeated by Cromwell at the Battle of Preston. France The Frondes five years of revolts take place against Mazarin’s rule in France. Denmark and Norway Frederick III becomes king. Holy Roman Empire In the Peace of Westphalia, Emperor Ferdinand III’s titles are given as: Ferdinand the Third, elected Roman emperor, always August; king of Germany, Hungary, Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia and Slavonia; archduke of Austria; duke of Burgundy, Brabant, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola; Margrave of Moravia; duke of Luxembourg, of the Higher and Lower Silesia, of Wurtemburg and Teck; prince of Swabia; count of Habsburg, Tyrol, Kyburg and Goritia; marquess of the Sacred Roman Empire, Burgovia, the Higher and Lower Lusace and lord of the marquisate of Slavonia, of Port Naon and Salines. Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth John II Casimir, brother of Władysław IV Vasa, is elected king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania, the third and last monarch from the House of Vasa; his reign is dominated by the Russo-Polish war (1654–1667) and the invasion and occupation of Poland by Sweden (1655–1660).
1649
England Charles I of England, Wales and Scotland is executed; the Commonwealth is founded; England is a republic until 1660. Montenegro Visarion I becomes prince-bishop.
1650
Scotland Charles II lands in Scotland and is proclaimed king.
1651
England Charles II invades England but loses the Battle of Worcester and flees to France.
1653
England Cromwell dismisses the Rump Parliament; he becomes lord protector of England. Germany Ferdinand IV is elected co-king with his father Ferdinand III; he dies shortly after; his younger brother Leopold, becomes heir.
1654
Sweden Queen Christina abdicates and moves to Rome, unmarried and without issue, to openly practise her Catholicism; Charles X Gustav, grandson of Charles IX, becomes king. Wallachia Constantin Şerban becomes prince.
1655
Venice Carlo Contarini is elected doge. Rome Cardinal Fabio Chigi is elected pope as Alexander VII. Hungary Leopold, son of Emperor Ferdinand III, becomes king.
1656
Portugal The mentally unstable and physically disabled Afonso VI becomes king, aged 13; his mother, Luisa of Medina-Sidonia, acts as regent for six years. Venice Bertucci Valiero is elected doge. Russia, Denmark and the Holy Roman Empire declare war on Sweden.
1658
England Oliver Cromwell dies; he is succeeded by his son Richard. Venice Giovanni Pesaro is elected doge. Holy Roman Empire Leopold I, king of Hungary, Bohemia and Croatia, becomes emperor-elect; his reign sees wars against the French and the Turks. Wallachia Mihnea III, also prince of Moldavia, comes to the throne; he moves the capital from Târgovişte to Bucharest.
1659
England The English army forces Richard Cromwell to resign, and the Rump Parliament is restored. Venice Domenico II Contarini is elected doge. Montenegro Mardarije II Kornečanin becomes prince-bishop. Bohemia Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor-elect and king of Hungary, becomes king. Wallachia Gheorghe Ghica becomes prince.
1660
Great Britain Charles II is restored to the throne of England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. Sweden Charles XI becomes king, aged 5. Denmark King Frederick III changes the Danish monarchy from elective to absolute.
“You had better have one King than five hundred.”
Charles II
1661
France The death of Cardinal Mazarin; Louis XIV becomes absolute monarch in France. Wallachia Grigore I Ghica becomes prince.
1662
Monaco Louis I (not to be confused with the earlier Louis I, lord of Monaco) becomes sovereign prince.
1664
Wallachia Grigore I Ghica is deposed; Radu Leon becomes prince; his authority relies on the support of the Phanariots, prominent Greeks living in Phanar, and especially the noble Cantacuzino family.
1665
Spain Charles II becomes the last Habsburg king of Spain.
1667
Portugal Afonso VI is forced by his brother Pedro, duke of Beja, the future Pedro II, to exile himself, while he becomes prince-regent. Rome Cardinal Giulio Rospigliosi is elected pope as Clement IX.
1668
Portugal Spain recognizes Portugal’s independence. Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth John II Casimir abdicates to become a Jesuit.
1669
Liechtenstein Hans-Adam, nicknamed Hans-Adam the Rich, becomes the third prince of Liechtenstein; in 1699 he purchases the territory of Schellenberg, and in 1712 the County of Vaduz, the two areas that will later constitute the Principality of Liechtenstein. Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki, son of controversial military commander Jeremi Michał Wiśniowiecki, is elected king; his reign is disastrous. Wallachia Anti-Greek sentiment brings down Radu Leon; Antonie din Popeşti, supported by the Cantacuzino family, replaces him as prince.
1670
Rome Cardinal Emilio Altieri is elected pope as Clement X. Denmark and Norway Christian V becomes king; he is loved by the people and hated by the nobles.
1672
England The Test Act deprives Catholics and Nonconformists of the right to hold public office. Wallachia Antonie din Popeşti is deposed on the orders of the Ottoman Grand Vizier; Grigore I Ghica is restored to power.
1673
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth John III Sobieski, a brilliant Polish military commander, is elected king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania; he takes a country ravaged by half a century of war, stabilizes it and gains a famous victory over the Turks at the 1683 Battle of Vienna. Montenegro Ruvim III Boljević becomes prince-bishop. Wallachia The Greek George Ducas becomes prince.
1674
Venice Nicolò Sagredo is elected doge. Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Jan III becomes king after defeating the Turks and the Cossacks.
1676
Venice Luigi Contarini is elected doge. Rome Cardinal Benedetto Odescalchi is elected pope as Innocent XI. Russia Fyodor III becomes tsar; he has been an invalid since birth.
1678
England An imaginary Catholic plot to overthrow Charles II of England is invented by Titus Oates. Wallachia George Ducas loses support and is replaced as prince by Şerban Cantacuzino.
1595
Sweden gains Estonia in the Treaty of Teusina, with Russia. Venice Tommaso Mocenigo is elected doge. Marino Grimani becomes doge.
1597
Ireland A rebellion against the English is led by Hugh O’Neill, earl of Tyrone.
1598
Spain and Portugal Philip II dies, having almost bankrupt Spain with global exploration and colonial expansion; Philip III succeeds him as king of Spain and Portugal; during his reign, the Moors are finally expelled from the Spanish peninsula.
Russia Fyodor I dies childless; regent Boris Godunov seizes the throne.
1599
Sweden Sigismund’s Catholicism leads to him being deposed by his father’s brother, the warrior-king Charles IX; during his reign, Charles takes his army as far as Moscow and attacks Poland, Denmark and Finland.
Rise of Empire
1600–1799
1600
Wallachia Simion Movilă, illegitimate son of Mihnea the Turned-Turk, becomes prince.
1601
Wallachia Radu Mihnea, son of Mihnea the Turned-Turk, becomes prince.
1602
Wallachia Simion Movilă becomes prince for the second time, and then loses power to Radu Şerban.
1603
Great Britain Elizabeth I, last of the Tudor monarchs, dies without issue; the Union of the Crowns takes place; James VI of Scotland, great-great-grandson of Henry VIII, also becomes James I of England, the first king of England from the House of Stuart.
1604
Monaco Hercule, lord of Monaco, is murdered; his 6-year-old son, Honoré II, becomes ruler under the regency of his father’s brother-in-law, Frederico Landi; Honoré is the first ruler to be called prince of Monaco.
1605
England The Gunpowder Plot to blow up king and Parliament fails.
Rome Cardinal Alessandro Ottaviano de’ Medici is elected pope as Leo XI; he reigns for just 27 days; Cardinal Camillo Borghese is elected pope as Paul V. Russia Fyodor II becomes tsar, aged 16, on 10 June; the Time of Troubles begins when on 20 July he and his mother are strangled by a group of discontented boyars (high-ranking aristocrats); False Dimitri, an impostor claiming to be the son of Ivan the Terrible, becomes tsar.
1606
Venice Leonardo Donato is elected doge. Russia Tsar False Dimitri is shot dead, probably by supporters of Prince Vasili Shuisky, after a reign lasting 10 months; Vasili IV Shuisky becomes tsar, but is never generally recognized as such.
1608
Germany The Protestant Union, a coalition of Protestant German states with the objective of defending the rights, lands and person of its members, is formed in Germany by Frederick IV. Liechtenstein Karl I, prince of Liechtenstein, founds the Princely Family of Liechtenstein, after being created hereditary prince by the heir to the throne of the Holy Roman Empire, Archduke Mathias; the honour is given for his support for the archduke in a land dispute with his father, Emperor Rudolf II.
1609
Netherlands The Twelve Years’ Truce virtually ensures indepen-dence for the Netherlands. Germany and the Holy Roman Empire Becoming increasingly unstable and ineffectual, Rudolf II is imprisoned and stripped of effective power by his brother Matthias in Prague.
1610
France Henri IV is stabbed to death by fanatical Catholic François Ravaillac, while riding in his coach; Louis XIII becomes king, aged 13; his mother, Marie de’ Medici, rules as regent until 1614; with the help of his chief minister, Cardinal Richelieu, appointed 1624, he will become the epitome of the absolute monarch. Sweden Gustav Adolf II, widely known as Gustavus Adolphus, becomes king; he leads Sweden successfully in the Thirty Years’ War, invading Germany and creating a small empire. Wallachia The Hungarian Gabriel Báthory, prince of Transylvania, seizes power. Russia Vasili IV Shuisky is deposed and becomes a monk; the country is governed by a council of Seven Boyars until 1612; they elect as king Władysław IV Vasa, son of the Swedish King Gustav I, but he never takes the throne, due to unrest and his father’s opposition.
1611
Germany and the Holy Roman Empire Rudolf II is forced to cede his crowns to his brother Matthias. Wallachia Radu Mihnea returns to power for the second time, is ousted by Radu Şerban and then returns to power once again.
1612
Venice Marcantonio Memmo is elected doge. Holy Roman Empire Matthias, also king of Hungary and king of Bohemia, is crowned Holy Roman Emperor.
1613
Russia Aged 17, Mikhail I Fyodorovich Romanov is unanimously elected tsar of Russia by a national assembly; he is the first king of the Romanov dynasty, which will rule Russia until 1917.
1614
Hungary Transylvanian Prince Bethlen Gabor comes to power.
1615
Venice Giovanni Bembo is elected doge.
1616
Wallachia Gabriel Movilă, son of Simion, becomes prince, he is replaced soon after by Alexandru Iliaş.
1617
Bohemia Catholic Archduke Ferdinand, son of Charles II of Austria, becomes king.
1618
Venice Nicolò Donato is elected doge; Antonio Priuli is elected doge. Hungary Ferdinand II becomes king. Wallachia Gabriel Movilă returns to the throne.
1619
Holy Roman Empire Ferdinand II, nephew of Maximilian II and king of Bohemia and Hungary, becomes emperor; his suppression of Protestantism marks the early years of the Thirty Years’ War.
1620
Navarre The Kingdom of Navarre is merged into France; French kings use the title ‘King of Navarre’ until the French Revolution in 1791; it is revived from 1814 to 1830 during the restoration of the French monarchy. Wallachia Radhu Mihnea returns to power for the fourth time.
1621
Spain and Portugal Philip IV becomes king of Spain and Philip III of Portugal; during his reign, Spain goes into decline. Rome Cardinal Alessandro Ludovisi is elected pope as Gregory XV.
1622
England James I dissolves Parliament.
1623
Venice Francesco Contarini is elected doge. Rome Cardinal Maffeo Barberini is elected pope as Urban VIII; he is the last pope to expand the papal territory by force of arms. Wallachia Alexandru Coconul, son of Radhu Mihneal, becomes prince.
1624
Venice Giovanni Corner is elected doge.
1625
Great Britain Charles I becomes king and dissolves the English Parliament. Denmark Christian IV enters the war against Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II. Hungary Ferdinand III, son of Ferdinand II, becomes king.
1626
Denmark Christian IV loses the Battle of Lutter.
1627
Liechtenstein Karl Eusebius becomes the second prince of Liechtenstein, aged 16; he will restore his lands after the ravages of the Thirty Years’ War, and becomes a patron of architecture. Bohemia The hereditary rule of the Habsburgs is confirmed. Wallachia Alexandru Iliaş returns to power.
1628
England The Petition of Right is created; Parliament curtails the King’s powers.
1629
England Charles I dissolves Parliament again and rules personally until 1640. Wallachia Leon Tomşa becomes prince.
1630
Sweden Gustavus Adolphus enters the war against Ferdinand II. Venice Nicolò Contarini is elected doge.
1631
Venice Francesco Erizzo is elected doge.
1632
Sweden Gustavus Adolphus is victorious, but dies in the Battle of Lützen; aged just 6, Queen Christina takes the throne; Axel Oxenstierna, lord high chancellor of Sweden, becomes regent; Christina is brought up as a prince and becomes known as the ‘Girl King’. Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Władysław IV Vasa, son of Sigismund IV Vasa, is elected king; during his reign, he prevents the Commonwealth from being embroiled in the Thirty Years’ War and defends it successfully from invasion. Wallachia Matei Basarab becomes prince; he spends much of his reign fighting off Moldavian incursions.
1633
Monaco Philip IV of Spain recognizes Monaco as a principality, confirming its rulers’ right to be called prince.
1636
Germany Ferdinand III is elected king. Montenegro On the death of Ruvim II Boljević-Njegos, the prince-bishopric remains vacant until 1639.
1637
Holy Roman Empire Ferdinand III, king of Germany, Hungary and Bohemia, becomes emperor.
1638
Scotland Scottish Presbyterians sign the Solemn League and Covenant, in effect a treaty between Scotland and the English Parliamentarians, agreeing to the preservation of the reformed religion in Scotland and its promotion in England and Ireland.
1639
Scotland The First Bishops’ War breaks out between Charles I and the Scottish Church. Montenegro Mardarije I Kornečanin becomes prince-bishop.
1640
England The Long Parliament takes place (until 1660).
Scotland The Second Bishops’ War in Britain ends with the Treaty of Ripon. Monaco reverts from Spanish to French protection under the Treaty of Péronne. Portugal A revolution elevates João IV to the Portuguese throne, first king of the House of Braganza, launching the protracted Portuguese Restoration war in which Portugal fights against Castile, until 1668.
1642
England Civil war erupts in England between Cavaliers (Royalists) and Roundheads (Parliamentarians); it lasts until 1647.
1643
England The Solemn League and Covenant is signed by the English Parliament. France Louis XIV, ‘the Sun King’, becomes king, aged 5; Cardinal Mazarin is his chief minister.
1644
England Oliver Cromwell wins the Battle of Marston Moor. Holy Roman Empire Ferdinand III gives the rulers of the German states the right to conduct their own foreign policy, in an effort to gain allies in negotiations with the French and the Swedes; in reality, this decision helps to erode imperial authority in the Holy Roman Empire. Rome Cardinal Giovanni Battista Pamphilj is elected pope as Innocent X.
1645
England Cromwell forms his New Model Army; Parliamentarians win the Battle of Naseby. Russia Alexis I becomes tsar, aged 16.
The New Model Army
Formed in 1645
At the very start of the English Civil War, Parliament relied on soldiers who were recruited by large landowners who supported their cause. However, in February 1645, Parliament decided they needed to form their own army of professional soldiers and made General Thomas Fairfax its commander-in-chief. Oliver Cromwell, who was in charge of the recruitment for the cavalry, believed that the New Model Army, as it became known, should only have men who truly believed in what they were fighting for. Where possible he recruited men who, like himself, held strong Puritan views.
The New Model Army was a military force that was based on a person’s ability rather than their position in society. It was made up mainly of light cavalry and the riders wore thick leather jerkins for protection, rather than heavy armour which would have slowed down their horses. Discipline was strict and the training was tough and thorough. The first major battle for the New Model Army was the Battle of Naseby in June 1645, where over 1,000 Royalist soldiers were killed and another 4,500 taken prisoner. After such a major defeat the Royalists never really regained their strength.
1646
Scotland Charles I surrenders to the Scots. Venice Francesco Molin is elected the 100th doge of Venice. Bohemia Ferdinand, son of Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand III, becomes king.
1647
England Charles I is handed over to the English Parliament; he escapes and makes a secret treaty with the Scots. Hungary Ferdinand, already king of Bohemia, becomes king.
1648
Scotland invades England and is defeated by Cromwell at the Battle of Preston. France The Frondes five years of revolts take place against Mazarin’s rule in France. Denmark and Norway Frederick III becomes king. Holy Roman Empire In the Peace of Westphalia, Emperor Ferdinand III’s titles are given as: Ferdinand the Third, elected Roman emperor, always August; king of Germany, Hungary, Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia and Slavonia; archduke of Austria; duke of Burgundy, Brabant, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola; Margrave of Moravia; duke of Luxembourg, of the Higher and Lower Silesia, of Wurtemburg and Teck; prince of Swabia; count of Habsburg, Tyrol, Kyburg and Goritia; marquess of the Sacred Roman Empire, Burgovia, the Higher and Lower Lusace and lord of the marquisate of Slavonia, of Port Naon and Salines. Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth John II Casimir, brother of Władysław IV Vasa, is elected king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania, the third and last monarch from the House of Vasa; his reign is dominated by the Russo-Polish war (1654–1667) and the invasion and occupation of Poland by Sweden (1655–1660).
1649
England Charles I of England, Wales and Scotland is executed; the Commonwealth is founded; England is a republic until 1660. Montenegro Visarion I becomes prince-bishop.
1650
Scotland Charles II lands in Scotland and is proclaimed king.
1651
England Charles II invades England but loses the Battle of Worcester and flees to France.
1653
England Cromwell dismisses the Rump Parliament; he becomes lord protector of England. Germany Ferdinand IV is elected co-king with his father Ferdinand III; he dies shortly after; his younger brother Leopold, becomes heir.
1654
Sweden Queen Christina abdicates and moves to Rome, unmarried and without issue, to openly practise her Catholicism; Charles X Gustav, grandson of Charles IX, becomes king. Wallachia Constantin Şerban becomes prince.
1655
Venice Carlo Contarini is elected doge. Rome Cardinal Fabio Chigi is elected pope as Alexander VII. Hungary Leopold, son of Emperor Ferdinand III, becomes king.
1656
Portugal The mentally unstable and physically disabled Afonso VI becomes king, aged 13; his mother, Luisa of Medina-Sidonia, acts as regent for six years. Venice Bertucci Valiero is elected doge. Russia, Denmark and the Holy Roman Empire declare war on Sweden.
1658
England Oliver Cromwell dies; he is succeeded by his son Richard. Venice Giovanni Pesaro is elected doge. Holy Roman Empire Leopold I, king of Hungary, Bohemia and Croatia, becomes emperor-elect; his reign sees wars against the French and the Turks. Wallachia Mihnea III, also prince of Moldavia, comes to the throne; he moves the capital from Târgovişte to Bucharest.
1659
England The English army forces Richard Cromwell to resign, and the Rump Parliament is restored. Venice Domenico II Contarini is elected doge. Montenegro Mardarije II Kornečanin becomes prince-bishop. Bohemia Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor-elect and king of Hungary, becomes king. Wallachia Gheorghe Ghica becomes prince.
1660
Great Britain Charles II is restored to the throne of England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. Sweden Charles XI becomes king, aged 5. Denmark King Frederick III changes the Danish monarchy from elective to absolute.
“You had better have one King than five hundred.”
Charles II
1661
France The death of Cardinal Mazarin; Louis XIV becomes absolute monarch in France. Wallachia Grigore I Ghica becomes prince.
1662
Monaco Louis I (not to be confused with the earlier Louis I, lord of Monaco) becomes sovereign prince.
1664
Wallachia Grigore I Ghica is deposed; Radu Leon becomes prince; his authority relies on the support of the Phanariots, prominent Greeks living in Phanar, and especially the noble Cantacuzino family.
1665
Spain Charles II becomes the last Habsburg king of Spain.
1667
Portugal Afonso VI is forced by his brother Pedro, duke of Beja, the future Pedro II, to exile himself, while he becomes prince-regent. Rome Cardinal Giulio Rospigliosi is elected pope as Clement IX.
1668
Portugal Spain recognizes Portugal’s independence. Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth John II Casimir abdicates to become a Jesuit.
1669
Liechtenstein Hans-Adam, nicknamed Hans-Adam the Rich, becomes the third prince of Liechtenstein; in 1699 he purchases the territory of Schellenberg, and in 1712 the County of Vaduz, the two areas that will later constitute the Principality of Liechtenstein. Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki, son of controversial military commander Jeremi Michał Wiśniowiecki, is elected king; his reign is disastrous. Wallachia Anti-Greek sentiment brings down Radu Leon; Antonie din Popeşti, supported by the Cantacuzino family, replaces him as prince.
1670
Rome Cardinal Emilio Altieri is elected pope as Clement X. Denmark and Norway Christian V becomes king; he is loved by the people and hated by the nobles.
1672
England The Test Act deprives Catholics and Nonconformists of the right to hold public office. Wallachia Antonie din Popeşti is deposed on the orders of the Ottoman Grand Vizier; Grigore I Ghica is restored to power.
1673
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth John III Sobieski, a brilliant Polish military commander, is elected king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania; he takes a country ravaged by half a century of war, stabilizes it and gains a famous victory over the Turks at the 1683 Battle of Vienna. Montenegro Ruvim III Boljević becomes prince-bishop. Wallachia The Greek George Ducas becomes prince.
1674
Venice Nicolò Sagredo is elected doge. Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Jan III becomes king after defeating the Turks and the Cossacks.
1676
Venice Luigi Contarini is elected doge. Rome Cardinal Benedetto Odescalchi is elected pope as Innocent XI. Russia Fyodor III becomes tsar; he has been an invalid since birth.
1678
England An imaginary Catholic plot to overthrow Charles II of England is invented by Titus Oates. Wallachia George Ducas loses support and is replaced as prince by Şerban Cantacuzino.
