100 Million Years of Food, page 28
49. Gutiérrez, Diagnostic Pathology of Parasitic Infections; ICDDR, Diarrhoeal Diseases Research; Fernando, Fernando, and Leong, Tropical Infectious Diseases.
50. Figueiredo et al., “Chronic Intestinal Helminth Infections Are Associated with Immune Hyporesponsiveness and Induction of a Regulatory Network.”
51. Pearce et al., “Worldwide Trends in the Prevalence of Asthma Symptoms.”
52. Cooper, “Interactions Between Helminth Parasites and Allergy”; Bloomfield et al., “Too Clean, or Not Too Clean.”
53. Summers et al., “Trichuris suis Therapy in Crohn’s Disease”; Summers et al., “Trichuris suis Therapy for Active Ulcerative Colitis”; Laskaris, Color Atlas of Oral Diseases; DiMarino and Benjamin, Gastrointestinal Disease; Bloch, “Could Kashrut Be Partly to Blame for Crohn’s Disease?”; Weinstock and Elliott, “Translatability of Helminth Therapy in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases.”
54. Klugman et al., “A Trial of a 9-Valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine in Children with and Those Without HIV Infection”; Silverberg et al., “Chickenpox in Childhood Is Associated with Decreased Atopic Disorders, IgE, Allergic Sensitization, and Leukocyte Subsets.”
55. Summers et al., “Trichuris suis Therapy for Active Ulcerative Colitis”; Correale and Farez, “Association Between Parasite Infection and Immune Responses in Multiple Sclerosis”; Saunders et al., “Inhibition of Autoimmune Type 1 Diabetes by Gastrointestinal Helminth Infection”; Adams, “Gut Instinct”; DeLong, “Conflicts of Interest in Vaccine Safety Research.”
THE CALORIE CONUNDRUM
1. USDA Economic Research Service, “Food Expenditures.”
2. Zhou et al., “Nutrient Intakes of Middle-Aged Men and Women in China, Japan, United Kingdom, and United States in the Late 1990s.”
3. Turner, “The Calorie Restriction Dieters.”
4. Nakagawa et al., “Comparative and Meta-Analytic Insights into Life Extension via Dietary Restriction.”
5. Renehan, “Insulin-like Growth Factor (IGF)-I, IGF Binding Protein-3, and Cancer Risk”; Juul, “Serum Levels of Insulin-like Growth Factor I and Its Binding Proteins in Health and Disease.”
6. Nakagawa et al., “Comparative and Meta-Analytic Insights into Life Extension via Dietary Restriction.”
7. Shanley and Kirkwood, “Calorie Restriction and Aging.”
8. “Glossary of Sexual and Scatological Euphemisms”; Vitousek, “Caloric Restriction for Longevity.”
9. Mattison et al., “Impact of Caloric Restriction on Health and Survival in Rhesus Monkeys from the NIA Study.”
10. Lawler et al., “Diet Restriction and Ageing in the Dog.”
11. Willcox, Willcox, and Suzuki, The Okinawa Diet Plan; Zhou et al., “Nutrient Intakes of Middle-Aged Men and Women in China, Japan, United Kingdom, and United States in the Late 1990s”; Fontana, “Long-Term Effects of Calorie or Protein Restriction on Serum IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 Concentration in Humans.”
12. Leigh, The World’s Greatest Fix.
13. Preceding millet with, for example, green gram beans, adzuki beans, cucurbits, cannabis or hemp, sesame, rape, and soybean.
14. Leigh, The World’s Greatest Fix, gives the population “in England within the Norman domains in 1086” as 283,242 males (women and children were not counted).
15. The Chinese were aware of some life-supporting agent in the air, noted as the yin of the air in the eighth century AD, but beyond this there was no deep understanding of why their assorted agricultural techniques worked.
16. Dense agricultural civilizations also existed in South Asia and the Middle East, but the climates in these regions promoted the spread of destructive infectious diseases such as malaria.
17. The results of the experiment were published on May 4, 1692.
18. May, World Population Policies; Grinin, De Munck, and Korotaev, History and Mathematics.
19. Leigh, The World’s Greatest Fix.
20. Newcomb and Spurr, A Technical History of the Motor Car.
21. Zhou et al., “Nutrient Intakes of Middle-Aged Men and Women in China, Japan, United Kingdom, and United States in the Late 1990s.”
22. Jenike, “Nutritional Ecology.”
23. Dugas et al., “Energy Expenditure in Adults Living in Developing Compared with Industrialized Countries.”
24. The physical activity level of people in countries ranked low and middle on the Human Development Index or who work at farming and in factories is higher.
25. BMI is calculated as weight divided by height, specifically: kg/m2, or lb/in2 × 703.
26. As of 2010. “FastStats: Body Measurements.”
27. de Garine and Koppert, “Guru-Fattening Sessions Among the Massa.”
28. Brink, “The Fattening Room Among the Annang of Nigeria.”
29. Mattson and Wan, “Beneficial Effects of Intermittent Fasting and Caloric Restriction on the Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Systems”; Chausse et al., “Intermittent Fasting Induces Hypothalamic Modifications Resulting in Low Feeding Efficiency, Low Body Mass and Overeating”; Barnosky et al., “Intermittent Fasting vs Daily Calorie Restriction for Type 2 Diabetes Prevention”; Cerqueira and Kowaltowski, “Mitochondrial Metabolism in Aging.”
30. Cerqueira et al., “Long-Term Intermittent Feeding, but Not Caloric Restriction, Leads to Redox Imbalance, Insulin Receptor Nitration, and Glucose Intolerance.”
31. Trepanowski and Bloomer, “The Impact of Religious Fasting on Human Health.”
32. Sadeghirad et al., “Islamic Fasting and Weight Loss.”
33. Westerterp and Speakman, “Physical Activity Energy Expenditure Has Not Declined since the 1980s and Matches Energy Expenditures of Wild Mammals.”
34. Taubes, Good Calories, Bad Calories.
35. Marlowe, “Hunter-Gatherers and Human Evolution.”
36. Hu et al., “Television Watching and Other Sedentary Behaviors in Relation to Risk of Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Women”; Grøntved and Hu, “Television Viewing and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes, Cardiovascular Disease, and All-Cause Mortality”; Nielsen, State of the Media TV Usage Trends: Q2 2010.
37. Hu et al., “Television Watching and Other Sedentary Behaviors in Relation to Risk of Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Women”; Grøntved and Hu, “Television Viewing and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes, Cardiovascular Disease, and All-Cause Mortality”; Nielsen, State of the Media TV Usage Trends: Q2 2010..
38. Sugiyama, Ding, and Owen, “Commuting by Car.”
39. Sieber et al., “Obesity and Other Risk Factors.”
40. Scholey, Harper, and Kennedy, “Cognitive Demand and Blood Glucose”; Fairclough and Houston, “A Metabolic Measure of Mental Effort.”
41. Miller and Bender, “The Breakfast Effect.”
42. Lund et al., “Prevalence and Risk Factors for Obesity in Adult Cats from Private US Veterinary Practices”; McGreevy et al., “Prevalence of Obesity in Dogs Examined by Australian Veterinary Practices and the Risk Factors Involved.”
43. Trasande et al., “Infant Antibiotic Exposures and Early-Life Body Mass.”
44. Flegal et al., “Association of All-Cause Mortality with Overweight and Obesity Using Standard Body Mass Index Categories.”
45. Dixon et al., “‘Obesity Paradox’ Misunderstands the Biology of Optimal Weight Throughout the Life Cycle.”
46. Jacobi and Cash, “In Pursuit of the Perfect Appearance”; Frederick, Fessler, and Haselton, “Do Representations of Male Muscularity Differ in Men’s and Women’s Magazines?”
47. Frederick, Fessler, and Haselton, “Do Representations of Male Muscularity Differ in Men’s and Women’s Magazines?”
48. Allbaugh, Crete.
49. The survey by Hatzis et al. in 2010 considered men between the ages of 53 and 73, while the original survey by Keys et al. considered younger men, between the ages of 40 and 59; thus the figures of nutrient intake can only be compared for approximate differences in magnitudes.
50. Vardavas, Public Health Implications of the Mediterranean Diet.
51. Lionis et al., “A High Prevalence of Diabetes Mellitus in a Municipality of Rural Crete, Greece.”
52. Hatzis et al., “A 50-Year Follow-up of the Seven Countries Study.”
53. Vardavas, Public Health Implications of the Mediterranean Diet; Hatzis et al., “A 50-Year Follow-up of the Seven Countries Study.”
54. Tambalis et al., “Higher Prevalence of Obesity in Greek Children Living in Rural Areas Despite Increased Levels of Physical Activity.”
55. Willcox et al., “Caloric Restriction, the Traditional Okinawan Diet, and Healthy Aging”; Le Bourg, “About the Article ‘Exploring the Impact of Climate on Human Longevity’ (Exp. Geront. 47, 660-671, 2012).”
56. Suzuki, “The Okinawa Shock.”
57. Inoue, Okinawa and the U.S. Military; Molasky, The American Occupation of Japan and Okinawa; Murray, Atlas of American Military History.
58. Takasu et al., “Influence of Motorization and Supermarket-Proliferation on the Prevalence of Type 2 Diabetes in the Inhabitants of a Small Town on Okinawa, Japan”; Joyce, “Japanese Get a Taste for Western Food and Fall Victim to Obesity and Early Death”; Suzuki, “The Okinawa Shock”; Todoriki, Willcox, and Willcox, “The Effects of PostWar Dietary Change on Longevity and Health in Okinawa.”
59. Higgins, “Epidemiology of Constipation in North America.”
60. Sikirov, “Comparison of Straining During Defecation in Three Positions”; Sakakibara et al., “Influence of Body Position on Defecation in Humans.”
61. Chakrabarti et al., “Is Squatting a Triggering Factor for Stroke in Indians?”
THE FUTURE OF FOOD
1. Serra-Majem et al., “How Could Changes in Diet Explain Changes in Coronary Heart Disease Mortality in Spain?”; Fried and Rao, “Sugars, Hypertriglyceridemia, and Cardiovascular Disease.”
2. Rogers et al., “Diet Throughout Childhood and Age at Menarche in a Contemporary Cohort of British Girls”; Tehrani et al., “Intake of Dairy Products, Calcium, Magnesium, and Phosphorus in Childhood and Age at Menarche in the Tehran Lipid and Glucose Study”; Tamakoshi, Yatsuya, and Tamakoshi, “Early Age at Menarche Associated with Increased All-Cause Mortality”; Frisch, Female Fertility and the Body Fat Connection.
3. “Leader in Healthcare and Preventive Medicine: Dean Ornish, MD.”
4. Fallon and Enig, Nourishing Traditions.
5. “Turning the Food Pyramid on Its Head with Sally Fallon Morrell.”
6. “State-by-State Review of Raw Milk Laws.”
7. Weston A. Price Foundation, “Journal, Summer 2013, Our Broken Food System.”
8. Price-Pottenger Nutrition Foundation, “Traditional Diets.”
9. Willcox, Willcox, and Suzuki, The Okinawa Diet Plan; Zabilka, Customs and Cultures of Okinawa; Kerr, Okinawa: The History of an Island People.
10. Buettner, The Blue Zones.
11. Buettner, The Blue Zones; Poulain et al., “Identification of a Geographic Area Characterized by Extreme Longevity in the Sardinia Island.”
12. Fernando and Hill, Lentil as Anything.
13. Busfield et al., “A Genomewide Search for Type 2 Diabetes–Susceptibility Genes in Indigenous Australians.”
14. Adams, “Sportsman’s Shot, Poacher’s Pot”; Mahoney, “Recreational Hunting and Sustainable Wildlife Use in North America.”
15. Mahoney, “Recreational Hunting and Sustainable Wildlife Use in North America.”
16. Howard, “Salmon Farming Gets Leaner and Greener”; Knapp, Roheim, and Anderson, The Great Salmon Run.
17. “About Cooke Aquaculture.”
18. Harvey and Milewski, Salmon Aquaculture in the Bay of Fundy.
19. Worm and Branch, “The Future of Fish.”
20. Domingo and Giné Bordonaba, “A Literature Review on the Safety Assessment of Genetically Modified Plants.”
21. Lesser et al., “Relationship Between Funding Source and Conclusion Among Nutrition-Related Scientific Articles”; Diels et al., “Association of Financial or Professional Conflict of Interest to Research Outcomes on Health Risks or Nutritional Assessment Studies of Genetically Modified Products.”
22. De Vendômois et al., “A Comparison of the Effects of Three GM Corn Varieties on Mammalian Health”; Cisterna et al., “Can a Genetically Modified Organism–Containing Diet Influence Embryo Development?”
23. “USA: Cultivation of GM Plants, 2013.”
24. Kopicki, “Strong Support for Labeling Modified Foods.”
25. Wilson, “Maine Becomes Second State to Require GMO Labels”; Reilly, “Malloy Signs State GMO Labeling Law in Fairfield.”
26. Hallenbeck, “Vermont Defends GMO Labeling Law.”
27. “Ethanol/Corn Balance Sheets—Agricultural Marketing Resource Center.”
28. Miller et al., “Health Status, Health Conditions, and Health Behaviors Among Amish Women”; Bassett, Schneider, and Huntington, “Physical Activity in an Old Order Amish Community”; Stevick, Growing Up Amish.
AFTERWORD: RULES TO EAT AND LIVE BY
1. Hehemann et al., “Transfer of Carbohydrate-Active Enzymes from Marine Bacteria to Japanese Gut Microbiota”; Perry et al., “Diet and the Evolution of Human Amylase Gene Copy Number Variation”; Luca, Perry, and Di Rienzo, “Evolutionary Adaptations to Dietary Changes”; Falchi et al., “Low Copy Number of the Salivary Amylase Gene Predisposes to Obesity.”
2. Ou et al., “Excess Winter Mortality and Cold Temperatures in a Subtropical City, Guangzhou, China.”
3. Blaser, Missing Microbes.
4. Uribarri et al., “Advanced Glycation End Products in Foods and a Practical Guide to Their Reduction in the Diet”; Semba et al., “Advanced Glycation End Products and Their Circulating Receptors Predict Cardiovascular Disease Mortality in Older Community-Dwelling Women”; Semba, Nicklett, and Ferrucci, “Does Accumulation of Advanced Glycation End Products Contribute to the Aging Phenotype?”; Vlassara and Striker, “The Role of Advanced Glycation End-Products in the Etiology of Insulin Resistance and Diabetes.”
5. Uribarri et al., “Advanced Glycation End Products in Foods and a Practical Guide to Their Reduction in the Diet”; Semba, Nicklett, and Ferrucci, “Does Accumulation of Advanced Glycation End Products Contribute to the Aging Phenotype?”
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