100 Million Years of Food, page 26
33. “What Is CH-19 Sweet Pepper?”
34. Johnson et al., “The Planetary Biology of Ascorbate and Uric Acid and Their Relationship with the Epidemic of Obesity and Cardiovascular Disease.”
35. Abdelgadir, Wahbi, and Idris, “Some Blood and Plasma Constituents of the Camel.”
36. Marcus, Kluge.
37. Casas-Agustench, Salas-Huetos, and Salas-Salvadó, “Mediterranean Nuts.”
38. Choi, Gao, and Curhan, “Vitamin C Intake and the Risk of Gout in Men.”
39. Sutin et al., “Impulsivity Is Associated with Uric Acid.”
40. Singer and Wallace, “The Allopurinol Hypersensitivity Syndrome”; Becker et al., “Febuxostat Compared with Allopurinol in Patients with Hyperuricemia and Gout.”
41. Kratzer et al., “Evolutionary History and Metabolic Insights of Ancient Mammalian Uricases.”
42. Hawkes, The Labrador Eskimo; Smith, Inujjuamiut Foraging Strategies.
THE TEMPTATION OF MEAT
1. “Papua New Guinea.”
2. Buettner, The Blue Zones.
3. Fryxell and Sinclair, “Causes and Consequences of Migration by Large Herbivores.”
4. Hofreiter et al., “Vertebrate DNA in Fecal Samples from Bonobos and Gorillas”; Surbeck and Hohmann, “Primate Hunting by Bonobos at LuiKotale, Salonga National Park.”
5. Hardus et al., “Behavioral, Ecological, and Evolutionary Aspects of Meat-Eating by Sumatran Orangutans (Pongo abelii)”; Hofreiter et al., “Vertebrate DNA in Fecal Samples from Bonobos and Gorillas.”
6. Semaw et al., “2.6-Million-Year-Old Stone Tools and Associated Bones from OGS-6 and OGS-7, Gona, Afar, Ethiopia.”
7. Hoberg, “Phylogeny of Taenia.”
8. Trinkel, “Prey Selection and Prey Preferences of Spotted Hyenas Crocuta crocuta in the Etosha National Park, Namibia.”
9. Liebenberg, “Persistence Hunting by Modern Hunter-Gatherers”; Bramble and Lieberman, “Endurance Running and the Evolution of Homo”; Cunningham et al., “The Influence of Foot Posture on the Cost of Transport in Humans”; Carrier et al., “The Energetic Paradox of Human Running and Hominid Evolution [and Comments and Reply].”
10. Wrangham, “Evolution of Coalitionary Killing.”
11. Falk et al., “Early Hominid Brain Evolution”; Anton, “Natural History of Homo erectus.”
12. Roebroeks and Villa, “On the Earliest Evidence for Habitual Use of Fire in Europe.”
13. Lepre et al., “An Earlier Origin for the Acheulian.”
14. Mithen, “‘Whatever Turns You On’: A Response to Anna Machin,‘Why Handaxes Just Aren’t That Sexy.’”
15. Gowlett, “Special Issue.”
16. A similar hypothesis is that the hand-axes were given as valuable gifts, to cement ties with important allies, but whether this constituted the principal function of hand-axes for more than a million years over a large geographical region also stretches the imagination.
17. Davidson, “Australian Throwing-Sticks, Throwing-Clubs, and Boomerangs”; Isaac, “Throwing and Human Evolution.”
18. Whittaker and McCall, “Handaxe-Hurling Hominids.”
19. The argument could be made that Stefansson and Andersen were both of Nordic ancestry, and therefore preadapted to meat-heavy diets through genes or childhood exposure.
20. Falchi et al., “Low Copy Number of the Salivary Amylase Gene Predisposes to Obesity.”
21. Hopkins, “Effects of Dietary Cholesterol on Serum Cholesterol.”
22. Davenport, Aphrodisiacs and Anti-Aphrodisiacs; Alcock, Food in the Ancient World; Delany, “Constantinus Africanus’ De Coitu.”
23. Cheney, “The Oyster in Dutch Genre Paintings.”
24. Delany, “Constantinus Africanus’ ‘De Coitu.’”
25. John Smith, “A Rhapsody upon a Lobster,” in King, Lobster.
26. Barona and Fernandez, “Dietary Cholesterol Affects Plasma Lipid Levels, the Intravascular Processing of Lipoproteins and Reverse Cholesterol Transport Without Increasing the Risk for Heart Disease.”
27. Casas-Agustench, Salas-Huetos, and Salas-Salvadó, “Mediterranean Nuts”; Aldemir et al., “Pistachio Diet Improves Erectile Function Parameters and Serum Lipid Profiles in Patients with Erectile Dysfunction.”
28. De Graaf, Brouwers, and Diemont, “Is Decreased Libido Associated with the Use of HMG-CoA-Reductase Inhibitors?”; Schooling et al., “The Effect of Statins on Testosterone in Men and Women, a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.”
29. Zhang, “Epidemiological Link Between Low Cholesterol and Suicidality.”
30. Tamakoshi, Yatsuya, and Tamakoshi, “Early Age at Menarche Associated with Increased All-Cause Mortality”; Rogers et al., “Diet throughout Childhood and Age at Menarche in a Contemporary Cohort of British Girls.”
31. Abbasi et al., “Experimental Zinc Deficiency in Man: Effect on Testicular Function”; Kynaston et al., “Changes in Seminal Quality Following Oral Zinc Therapy.”
32. Elgar and Crespi, Cannibalism; Saladie et al., “Intergroup Cannibalism in the European Early Pleistocene.”
33. Liberski et al., “Kuru.”
34. Mead et al., “Balancing Selection at the Prion Protein Gene Consistent with Prehistoric Kurulike Epidemics.”
35. Diamond, “Archaeology.”
THE PARADOX OF FISH
1. “Japan Bluefin Tuna Fetches Record $1.7m.”
2. Simoons, “Fish as Forbidden Food”; Dobney and Ervynck, “To Fish or Not to Fish?”; Malainey, Przybylski, and Sherriff, “One Person’s Food”; Simoons, Eat Not This Flesh; Buxton, “Fish-Eating in Medieval England”; Diamond, Collapse; Woolgar, “Food and the Middle Ages”; Pálsson, Coastal Economies, Cultural Accounts; Henrich and Henrich, “The Evolution of Cultural Adaptations.”
3. Simoons, “Fish as Forbidden Food”; Simoons, “Rejection of Fish as Human Food in Africa.”
4. Akazawa et al., “The Management of Possible Fishbone Ingestion”; Kodama and Hokama, “Variations in Symptomatology of Ciguatera Poisoning”; Lehane and Lewis, “Ciguatera”; Begossi, Hanazaki, and Ramos, “Food Chain and the Reasons for Fish Food Taboos Among Amazonian and Atlantic Forest Fishers (Brazil).”
5. Allport, The Queen of Fats; Usui et al., “Eicosapentaenoic Acid Plays a Role in Stabilizing Dynamic Membrane Structure in the Deep-Sea Piezophile Shewanella violacea”; Balny, Masson, and Heremans, Frontiers in High Pressure Biochemistry and Biophysics; Bell, Henderson, and Sargent, “The Role of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Fish.”
6. The two forms of omega-3 that are useful to humans are EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid). EPA and DHA are also present in the flesh, organs, eggs, and milk of animals that browse on natural diets, including grass, seaweed (EPA only), and insects. Humans can also synthesize limited amounts of both EPA and DHA from ALA (alpha-linolenic acid), which is found in the chloroplasts of wild plants. Flaxseed oil, for instance, is a rich source of ALA. Omega-6 fatty acids also come in two main forms, linoleic acid (LA) and arachidonic acid (AA). LA is found in the seeds of most plants (with the exceptions of coconut, cocoa, and palm), and AA is found in meat and other animal products. Humans are able to synthesize AA (the meat-based omega-6) from LA (plant-based omega-6). Simopoulos, “The Importance of the Omega-6/Omega-3 Fatty Acid Ratio in Cardiovascular Disease and Other Chronic Diseases.”
7. Simopoulos, “The Importance of the Omega-6/Omega-3 Fatty Acid Ratio in Cardiovascular Disease and Other Chronic Diseases”; Calder, “The Role of Marine Omega-3 (n-3) Fatty Acids in Inflammatory Processes, Atherosclerosis and Plaque Stability.”
8. Simopoulos, “The Importance of the Omega-6/Omega-3 Fatty Acid Ratio in Cardiovascular Disease and Other Chronic Diseases”; Eaton et al., “Dietary Intake of Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids During the Paleolithic”; Meyer et al., “Dietary Intakes and Food Sources of Omega-6 and Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids”; Sioen et al., “Dietary Intakes and Food Sources of Fatty Acids for Belgian Women, Focused on n-6 and n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids”; Sugano and Hirahara, “Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in the Food Chain in Japan”; Pella et al., “Effects of an Indo-Mediterranean Diet on the Omega-6/Omega-3 Ratio in Patients at High Risk of Coronary Artery Disease”; Blasbalg et al., “Changes in Consumption of Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids in the United States During the 20th Century”; Taubes, Good Calories, Bad Calories.
9. MacLean et al., “Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Cancer Risk”; Saynor, Verel, and Gillott, “The Long-Term Effect of Dietary Supplementation with Fish Lipid Concentrate on Serum Lipids, Bleeding Time, Platelets and Angina.”
10. The waxy-leaf nightshade plant (Solanum glaucophyllum) produces very high levels of vitamin D, likely as protection against animal predation; animals that browse heavily on this plant suffer from hypercalcium, leading to calcification of tissues and possibly death.
11. Björn, “Vitamin D”; Lazenby and McCormack, “Salmon and Malnutrition on the Northwest Coast”; Maji, “Vitamin D Toxicity.”
12. Simoons, Eat Not This Flesh.
13. Richerson and Boyd, “Built for Speed, Not for Comfort.”
14. Plutarch, Isis and Osiris.
15. Simoons, Eat Not This Flesh.
16. Cerulli, Peoples of SouthWest Ethiopia and Its Borderland.
17. Saisithi, “Traditional Fermented Fish.”
18. Curtis, “Umami and the Foods of Classical Antiquity”; Saisithi, “Traditional Fermented Fish.”
19. Martial, Epigrams.
20. In Vietnamese: Tuong Ban cham voi tai de An vao mot mieng bung bung nhu de Em oi, o lai dung ve / Ngay mai ta lai Tuong Ban tai de.
21. Nakamura et al., “A Japanese Diet and 19-Year Mortality”; Goldbohm et al., “Dairy Consumption and 10-Y Total and Cardiovascular Mortality.”
22. Kurihara, “Glutamate.”
23. Shimada et al., “Headache and Mechanical Sensitization of Human Pericranial Muscles After Repeated Intake of Monosodium Glutamate (MSG).”
24. He et al., “Consumption of Monosodium Glutamate in Relation to Incidence of Overweight in Chinese Adults”; Insawang et al., “Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) Intake Is Associated with the Prevalence of Metabolic Syndrome in a Rural Thai Population.”
25. Samuels, “The Toxicity/Safety of Processed Free Glutamic Acid (MSG).”
26. Mosby, “‘That Won-Ton Soup Headache’”; Walker and Lupien, “The Safety Evaluation of Monosodium Glutamate.”
27. Shi et al., “Adaptive Diversification of Bitter Taste Receptor Genes in Mammalian Evolution”; Huang et al., “The Cells and Logic for Mammalian Sour Taste Detection.”
THE EMPIRE OF STARCHES
1. Blount, Soupsongs/Webster’s Ark.
2. Mintz and Schlettwein-Gsell, “Food Patterns in Agrarian Societies.”
3. Feynman and Ruzmaikin, “Climate Stability and the Development of Agricultural Societies.”
4. Price and Bar-Yosef, “The Origins of Agriculture”; Cohen, “Introduction.”
5. Cardillo and Lister, “Death in the Slow Lane”; Roberts et al., “New Ages for the Last Australian Megafauna”; Holdaway and Jacomb, “Rapid Extinction of the Moas (Aves: Dinornithiformes)”; Roberts and Jacobs, “The Lost Giants of Tasmania”; Diamond, “Palaeontology”; Norton et al., “The Nature of Megafaunal Extinctions During the MIS 3–2 Transition in Japan”; Anderson et al., “Faunal Extinction and Human Habitation in New Caledonia.”
6. Munro, “Epipaleolithic Subsistence Intensification in the Southern Levant.”
7. Bar-Yosef, “Climatic Fluctuations and Early Farming in West and East Asia.”
8. Larsen, “The Agricultural Revolution as Environmental Catastrophe.”
9. Murgatroyd, Dig 3ft NW; Murgatroyd, The Dig Tree; Gregory, Australia’s Great Explorers; Robson, Great Australian Speeches; Clarke, Aboriginal Plant Collectors; French, The Camel Who Crossed Australia.
10. Arditti and Rodriguez, “Dieffenbachia.”
11. Roberts, Margaret Roberts’ A–Z of Herbs; Kowalchik and Hylton, Rodale’s Illustrated Encyclopedia of Herbs; Pohanish, Sittig’s Handbook of Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals and Carcinogens; Gaillard and Pepin, “Poisoning by Plant Material”; Emsley, Molecules of Murder.
12. Turkington and Mitchell, The Encyclopedia of Poisons and Antidotes; Gaillard and Pepin, “Poisoning by Plant Material.”
13. Turkington and Mitchell, The Encyclopedia of Poisons and Antidotes; Gaillard and Pepin, “Poisoning by Plant Material”; Barceloux, Medical Toxicology of Natural Substances; Eppinger, Field Guide to Wild Flowers of Britain and Europe; Gibbons, Haynes, and Thomas, Poisonous Plants and Ven Animals; Bryson, Comprehensive Reviews in Toxicology; Nellis, Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean; Vizgirdas and Rey-Vizgirdas, Wild Plants of the Sierra Nevada; Lewis, Lewis’ Dictionary of Toxicology; Kurian and Sankar, Medicinal Plants; Roberts, Margaret Roberts’ A–Z of Herbs; Kowalchik and Hylton, Rodale’s Illustrated Encyclopedia of Herbs; Emsley, Molecules of Murder; Greim and Snyder, Toxicology and Risk Assessment; Karmakar, Forensic Medicine and Toxicology; Iwu, Handbook of African Medicinal Plants; Panda, Herbs Cultivation and Medicinal Uses; Schmelzer and Gurib-Fakim, Medicinal Plants 1; Meuninck, Medicinal Plants of North America; Tilford, Edible and Medicinal Plants of the West; Fuller and McClintock, Poisonous Plants of California.
14. Lawley, Curtis, and Davis, The Food Safety Hazard Guidebook; Jha, “Man Dies After Drinking Lauki Juice.”
15. Also known as khesari dal. The toxic effects of grass pea are due to accumulation of the toxic amino acid ODAP.
16. Bruyn and Poser, The History of Tropical Neurology; Rutter and Percy, “The Pulse That Maims.”
17. Krakauer, “How Chris McCandless Died.”
18. McMillan and Thompson, “An Outbreak of Suspected Solanine Poisoning in Schoolboys: Examination of Criteria of Solanine Poisoning”; “Solanine Poisoning.”
19. Seigler, Plant Secondary Metabolism.
20. Fuller and McClintock, Poisonous Plants of California Natural History Guides; Deshpande, Handbook of Food Toxicology; Williamson et al., Venomous and Poisonous Marine Animals; Fenwick and Oakenfull, “Saponin Content of Food Plants and Some Prepared Foods.”
21. Rea, Thompson, and Jenkins, “Lectins in Foods and Their Relation to Starch Digestibility.”
22. Walters, Plant Defense; Arnoldi, Functional Foods, Cardiovascular Disease, and Diabetes; Deshpande, Handbook of Food Toxicology; Ayyagari, Narasinga Rao, and Roy, “Lectins, Trypsin Inhibitors, BOAA and Tannins in Legumes and Cereals and the Effects of Processing”; Riemann and Cliver, Foodborne Infections and Intoxications; Bewley, Black, and Halmer, The Encyclopedia of Seeds.
23. Vasconcelos et al., “Detoxification of Cassava During Gari Preparation”; Tylleskär et al., “Cassava Cyanogens and Konzo, an Upper Motoneuron Disease Found in Africa”; Haque and Bradbury, “Total Cyanide Determination of Plants and Foods Using the Picrate and Acid Hydrolysis Methods”; Satya et al., “Bamboo Shoot Processing.”
24. Packard, Processed Foods and the Consumer.
25. Lott et al., “Phytic Acid and Phosphorus in Crop Seeds and Fruits”; Libert and Franceschi, “Oxalate in Crop Plants”; Siener et al., “Oxalate Content of Cereals and Cereal Products”; Porth, Essentials of Pathophysiology; Duhan et al., “Phytic Acid Content of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) and Black Gram (Vigna mungo)”; Bishnoi, Khetarpaul, and Yadav, “Effect of Domestic Processing and Cooking Methods on Phytic Acid and Polyphenol Contents of Pea Cultivars (Pisum sativum)”; Reddy and Pierson, “Reduction in Antinutritional and Toxic Components in Plant Foods by Fermentation”; Savage et al., “Effect of Cooking on the Soluble and Insoluble Oxalate Content of Some New Zealand Foods.”
26. Zohary, Hopf, and Weiss, Domestication of Plants in the Old World.
27. Bower, Sharrett, and Plogsted, Celiac Disease; Smith, Celiac Disease; Zhernakova et al., “Evolutionary and Functional Analysis of Celiac Risk Loci Reveals SH2B3 as a Protective Factor Against Bacterial Infection.”
28. Bower, Sharrett, and Plogsted, Celiac Disease; Smith, Celiac Disease; Zhernakova et al., “Evolutionary and Functional Analysis of Celiac Risk Loci Reveals SH2B3 as a Protective Factor Against Bacterial Infection”; Sapone et al., “Spectrum of Gluten-Related Disorders.”
29. Zhernakova et al., “Evolutionary and Functional Analysis of Celiac Risk Loci Reveals SH2B3 as a Protective Factor Against Bacterial Infection”; Haboubi, “Coeliac Disease: From A–Z”; “Being GlutenFree ‘Is Determined by Evolution’, Says Gastroenterologist.”
30. Velasquez-Manoff, “What Really Causes Celiac Disease?”
31. Decker et al., “Cesarean Delivery Is Associated with Celiac Disease but Not Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Children.”
32. Sapone et al., “Spectrum of Gluten-Related Disorders”; Catassi et al., “NonCeliac Gluten Sensitivity.”
33. Peters et al., “Potential Benefits and Hazards of Physical Activity and Exercise on the Gastrointestinal Tract”; Johannesson et al., “Physical Activity Improves Symptoms in Irritable Bowel Syndrome”; de Oliveira and Burini, “The Impact of Physical Exercise on the Gastrointestinal Tract”; Gibson and Shepherd, “Food Choice as a Key Management Strategy for Functional Gastrointestinal Symptoms.”
ELIXIRS
1. Freedman et al., “Association of Coffee Drinking with Total and Cause-Specific Mortality.”
2. Catling et al., “A Systematic Review of Analytical Observational Studies Investigating the Association Between Cardiovascular Disease and Drinking Water Hardness”; Monarca et al., “Drinking Water Hardness and Cardiovascular Disease.”
3. McGovern et al., “Fermented Beverages of Pre-and Proto-Historic China.”
