100 Million Years of Food, page 27
4. Levey, “The Evolutionary Ecology of Ethanol Production and Alcoholism.”
5. Piškur et al., “How Did Saccharomyces Evolve to Become a Good Brewer?”
6. Kinde et al., “Strong Circumstantial Evidence for Ethanol Toxicosis in Cedar Waxwings (Bombycilla cedrorum)”; Dennis, “If You Drink, Don’t Fly.”
7. Marmot, “Alcohol and Coronary Heart Disease”; Bovet and Paccaud, “Commentary”; Marmot, “Commentary”; Rimm et al., “Moderate Alcohol Intake and Lower Risk of Coronary Heart Disease”; Stec et al., “Association of Fibrinogen with Cardiovascular Risk Factors and Cardiovascular Disease in the Framingham Offspring Population.”
8. Bovet and Paccaud, “Commentary”; Marmot, “Commentary”; Bremer, Mietus-Snyder, and Lustig, “Toward a Unifying Hypothesis of Metabolic Syndrome.”
9. Peng et al., “The ADH1B Arg47His Polymorphism in East Asian Populations and Expansion of Rice Domestication in History.”
10. Prentice, “Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Osteoporosis”; Grivas et al., “Association Between Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis Prevalence and Age at Menarche in Different Geographic Latitudes.”
11. Jouan et al., “Hormones in Bovine Milk and Milk Products: A Survey.”
12. Leonardi et al., “The Evolution of Lactase Persistence in Europe. A Synthesis of Archaeological and Genetic Evidence.”
13. Malacarne, “Protein and Fat Composition of Mare’s Milk.”
14. Salimei and Fantuz, “Equid Milk for Human Consumption”; Malacarne, “Protein and Fat Composition of Mare’s Milk”; Faye, “The Sustainability Challenge to the Dairy Sector—The Growing Importance of Non-Cattle Milk Production Worldwide.”
15. Fessler and Haley, “Guarding the Perimeter”; Gade, “Llamas and Alpacas”; Gade, Nature and Culture in the Andes.
16. Curtis, Aunger, and Rabie, “Evidence That Disgust Evolved to Protect from Risk of Disease.”
17. Ottaviani, Camera, and Picardo, “Lipid Mediators in Acne.”
18. Hegsted, “Fractures, Calcium, and the Modern Diet”; Prentice, “Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Osteoporosis.”
19. Koh et al., “Gender-Specific Associations Between Soy and Risk of Hip Fracture in the Singapore Chinese Health Study”; Nimptsch et al., “Dietary Vitamin K Intake in Relation to Cancer Incidence and Mortality”; Chow, “Dietary Intake of Menaquinones and Risk of Cancer Incidence and Mortality.”
20. Rowland et al., “Calcium Intake and Prostate Cancer Among African Americans”; Kretchmer et al., “Intestinal Absorption of Lactose in Nigerian Ethnic Groups.”
21. Sellers, Sharma, and Rodd, “Adaptation of Inuit Children to a Low-Calcium Diet.”
22. Fediuk et al., “Vitamin C in Inuit Traditional Food and Women’s Diets”; Njoku, Ayuk, and Okoye, “Temperature Effects on Vitamin C Content in Citrus Fruits”; Jacobs, The Pastoral Masai of Kenya; Dickson, The Arab of the Desert; Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and Wahábys; Leshem et al., “Enhanced Salt Appetite, Diet and Drinking in Traditional Bedouin Women in the Negev”; Wagh et al., “Lactase Persistence and Lipid Pathway Selection in the Maasai.”
23. Lactase persistence has been observed at frequencies of more than 80 percent among Tutsis, Beja, Tuareg, and Bedouins; 23 percent to 76 percent of Jordanians; and 22 percent to 86 percent of people in Saudi Arabia. Leonardi et al., “The Evolution of Lactase Persistence in Europe. A Synthesis of Archaeological and Genetic Evidence.”; Heyer et al., “Lactase Persistence in Central Asia.”
24. Wiley, Re-Imagining Milk; DuPuis, Nature’s Perfect Food; Elliott, “Canada’s Great Butter Caper: On Law, Fakes and the Biography of Margarine.”
A TRUCE AMONG THIEVES
1. Barnes, Diseases and Human Evolution.
2. “Preservation of Health in the Japanese Navy and Army.”
3. Carpenter, Beriberi, White Rice, and Vitamin B.
4. Rajakumar, “Pellagra in the United States”; Bollet, “Politics and Pellagra”; Goldberger et al., The Experimental Production of Pellagra in Human Subjects by Means of Diet; Mariani-Costantini and Mariani-Costantini, “An Outline of the History of Pellagra in Italy”; Elmore and Feinstein, “Joseph Goldberger.”
5. Rajakumar, “Pellagra in the United States”; Bollet, “Politics and Pellagra”; Goldberger et al., The Experimental Production of Pellagra in Human Subjects by Means of Diet; Elmore and Feinstein, “Joseph Goldberger.”
6. Whitaker, “Bread and Work”; Livi-Bacci, “Fertility, Nutrition, and Pellagra.”
7. Katz, Hediger, and Valleroy, “Traditional Maize Processing Techniques in the New World”; Wall and Carpenter, “Variation in Availability of Niacin in Grain Products”; Rajakumar, “Pellagra in the United States”; Bollet, “Politics and Pellagra”; Goldberger et al., The Experimental Production of Pellagra in Human Subjects by Means of Diet.
8. Barnes, Diseases and Human Evolution.
9. Drummond and Wilbraham, The Englishman’s Food.
10. Weick, “A History of Rickets in the United States.”
11. Guallar et al., “Enough Is Enough.”
12. Among 400,000 young Singaporean men called up for compulsory preenlistment medical screening, the prevalence of myopia (defined as unaided visual acuity worse than 6/18) increased from 26.3 percent during 1974–84 to 43.3% during 1987–91. Angle and Wissmann, “The Epidemiology of Myopia”; Brown, “Use-Abuse Theory of Changes in Refraction Versus Biologic Theory”; Rose et al., “Outdoor Activity Reduces the Prevalence of Myopia in Children”; Saw, “A Synopsis of the Prevalence Rates and Environmental Risk Factors for Myopia”; Au Eong, Tay, and Lim, “Education and Myopia in 110,236 Young Singapore Males”; Tay et al., “Myopia and Educational Attainment in 421,116 Young Singaporean Males.”
13. Jones et al., “Parental History of Myopia, Sports and Outdoor Activities, and Future Myopia”; Rose et al., “Outdoor Activity Reduces the Prevalence of Myopia in Children”; Dirani et al., “Outdoor Activity and Myopia in Singapore Teenage Children.”
14. Dirani et al., “Outdoor Activity and Myopia in Singapore Teenage Children”; Jones et al., “Parental History of Myopia, Sports and Outdoor Activities, and Future Myopia”; Smith, Hung, and Huang, “Protective Effects of High Ambient Lighting on the Development of Form-Deprivation Myopia in Rhesus Monkeys”; Ashby, Ohlendorf, and Schaeffel, “The Effect of Ambient Illuminance on the Development of Deprivation Myopia in Chicks”; Fujiwara et al., “Seasonal Variation in Myopia Progression and Axial Elongation”; Meng et al., “Myopia and Iris Colour”; Sherwin et al., “The Association Between Time Spent Outdoors and Myopia Using a Novel Biomarker of Outdoor Light Exposure.”
15. Beauchemin and Hays, “Sunny Hospital Rooms Expedite Recovery from Severe and Refractory Depressions”; Beauchemin and Hays, “Dying in the Dark.”
16. Kinney et al., “Relation of Schizophrenia Prevalence to Latitude, Climate, Fish Consumption, Infant Mortality, and Skin Color”; Saha et al., “The Incidence and Prevalence of Schizophrenia Varies with Latitude”; Grant and Soles, “Epidemiologic Evidence for Supporting the Role of Maternal Vitamin D Deficiency as a Risk Factor for the Development of Infantile Autism.”
17. Parra, “Human Pigmentation Variation”; Norton et al., “Genetic Evidence for the Convergent Evolution of Light Skin in Europeans and East Asians.”
18. Gandini et al., “Meta-Analysis of Risk Factors for Cutaneous Melanoma”; Elwood and Jopson, “Melanoma and Sun Exposure”; Westerdahl et al., “Sunscreen Use and Malignant Melanoma”; Green et al., “Reduced Melanoma After Regular Sunscreen Use”; Bastuji-Garin and Diepgen, “Cutaneous Malignant Melanoma, Sun Exposure, and Sunscreen Use”; de Gruijl, “Skin Cancer and Solar UV Radiation”; Holick, “Environmental Factors That Influence the Cutaneous Production of Vitamin D.”
19. In the study, 2,848 infants were submitted to skin-prick and food-ingestion tests. The one-year-old infants were not a completely random sample from the general Melbourne population of one-year-olds, because parents who agreed to participate tended to come from higher-income families, and their children tended to have prior eczema conditions. Prescott and Allen, “Food Allergy”; Osborne et al., “Prevalence of Challenge-Proven IgE-Mediated Food Allergy Using Population-Based Sampling and Predetermined Challenge Criteria in Infants.”
20. Shek and Lee, “Food Allergy in Asia.”
21. Ninety-eight pregnant women who were booked for delivery in Western Australia and had a history of allergies were allotted four 1-gram fish oil pills a day.
22. The studies were conducted in Sweden and Norway. In Sweden, children who ate more fish in early life had lower risks of asthma, eczema, and allergic rhinitis and produced fewer antibodies in an allergen blood test at four years of age. In Norway, children who ate fish during their first year of life had lower rates of hay fever, again at four years of age. The Swedish study involved 4,089 children, the Norwegian study 2,531 children.
23. The survey involved 691 Southern California public school children from fourth to tenth grade. Oily fish were defined as blue mackerel, Atlantic salmon, southern bluefin tuna, blue-eye trevalla, rainbow trout, mullet, blue grenadier, tailor, silver bream, gemfish, blackfish, orange roughy, pilchards, redfish, yellowtail, and tarwhine.
24. Anandan, Nurmatov, and Sheikh, “Omega 3 and 6 Oils for Primary Prevention of Allergic Disease”; Dunstan et al., “Fish Oil Supplementation in Pregnancy Modifies Neonatal Allergen-Specific Immune Responses and Clinical Outcomes in Infants at High Risk of Atopy”; Kull et al., “Fish Consumption During the First Year of Life and Development of Allergic Diseases During Childhood”; Thien, Mencia-Huerta, and Lee, “Dietary Fish Oil Effects on Seasonal Hay Fever and Asthma in Pollen-Sensitive Subjects”; Nafstad et al., “Asthma and Allergic Rhinitis at 4 Years of Age in Relation to Fish Consumption in Infancy”; Salam, Li, Langholz, and Gilliland. “Maternal Fish Consumption During Pregnancy and Risk of Early Childhood Asthma”; Sausenthaler et al., “Maternal Diet During Pregnancy in Relation to Eczema and Allergic Sensitization in the Offspring at 2 Y of Age.”
25. Anandan, Nurmatov, and Sheikh, “Omega 3 and 6 Oils for Primary Prevention of Allergic Disease”; Moher et al., Health Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Asthma.
26. Holick, “Vitamin D Deficiency”; Van Belle, Gysemans, and Mathieu, “Vitamin D in Autoimmune, Infectious and Allergic Diseases: A Vital Player?”; Vassallo and Camargo Jr., “Potential Mechanisms for the Hypothesized Link Between Sunshine, Vitamin D, and Food Allergy in Children.”
27. Devereux et al., “Maternal Vitamin D Intake During Pregnancy and Early Childhood Wheezing”; Gupta et al., “Vitamin D and Asthma in Children.”
28. Researchers surveyed 1,669 mothers. Allergic rhinitis and asthma were assessed at five years of age. Vitamin D in food came principally from fish and margarine. This study was conducted among children at risk of developing type 1 diabetes, which may offer protection against allergic diseases. However, the rates of asthma and allergic rhinitis among infants in this study were similar to rates in the general Finnish population. Also, the effect of vitamin D was consistent with two previously mentioned studies, conducted in North America and Scotland.
29. Erkkola et al., “Maternal Vitamin D Intake During Pregnancy Is Inversely Associated with Asthma and Allergic Rhinitis in 5-Year-Old Children”; Wjst and Hyppönen, “Vitamin D Serum Levels and Allergic Rhinitis.”
30. Doctors checked American data on 1,511,534 EpiPen prescriptions filled in 2004. Massachusetts had 11.8 EpiPen prescriptions per 1,000 people. Hawaii had 2.7 EpiPen prescriptions per 1,000.
31. Simons, Peterson, and Black, “Epinephrine Dispensing Patterns for an Out-of-Hospital Population”; Camargo et al., “Regional Differences in EpiPen Prescriptions in the United States”; Mullins, Clark, and Camargo, “Regional Variation in Epinephrine Autoinjector Prescriptions in Australia.”
32. The hypoallergenic baby formula study was conducted in 2010. The peanut and egg allergy study was conducted in 2012. Eight-year-old and nine-year-old kids living in northern (i.e., colder) states were more likely to develop peanut allergies. Kids between four and five years of age followed the same pattern, with the addition of egg allergies.
33. Mullins, Clark, and Camargo, “Regional Variation in Infant Hypoallergenic Formula Prescriptions in Australia”; Rudders, Espinola, and Camargo, “North-South Differences in US Emergency Department Visits for Acute Allergic Reactions”; Vassallo et al., “Season of Birth and Food Allergy in Children”; Osborne et al., “Prevalence of Eczema and Food Allergy Is Associated with Latitude in Australia.”
34. In the Boston study, a group of eleven children suffering from wintertime eczema took either vitamin D or an identical-looking placebo. Four out of five kids who took 1000 IU of vitamin D daily showed improvement in their eczema symptoms; only one among the six kids who got the placebo showed improvement. The study in Iran was a randomized control study of fifty-two teens and adults. The Italian study involved thirty-seven children. Vocks, “Climatotherapy in Atopic Eczema”; Byremo, Rød, and Carlsen, “Effect of Climatic Change in Children with Atopic Eczema”; Harari et al., “Climatotherapy of Atopic Dermatitis at the Dead Sea”; Sidbury et al., “Randomized Controlled Trial of Vitamin D Supplementation for Winter-Related Atopic Dermatitis in Boston”; Javanbakht et al., “Randomized Controlled Trial Using Vitamins E and D Supplementation in Atopic Dermatitis”; Peroni et al., “Correlation Between Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Levels and Severity of Atopic Dermatitis in Children.”
35. Hata et al., “Administration of Oral Vitamin D Induces Cathelicidin Production in Atopic Individuals”; Meyer and Thyssen, “Filaggrin Gene Defects and Dry Skin Barrier Function”; Osawa et al., “Japanese-Specific Filaggrin Gene Mutations in Japanese Patients Suffering from Atopic Eczema and Asthma”; Chen et al., “Wide Spectrum of Filaggrin-Null Mutations in Atopic Dermatitis Highlights Differences Between Singaporean Chinese and European Populations.”
36. Wjst and Hyppönen, “Vitamin D Serum Levels and Allergic Rhinitis”; Hypponen, “Infant Vitamin D Supplementation and Allergic Conditions in Adulthood”; Bäck et al., “Does Vitamin D Intake During Infancy Promote the Development of Atopic Allergy?”; Gale et al., “Maternal Vitamin D Status During Pregnancy and Child Outcomes”; Ahn et al., “Serum Vitamin D Concentration and Prostate Cancer Risk”; Chen et al., “Prospective Study of Serum 25(OH)-Vitamin D Concentration and Risk of Oesophageal and Gastric Cancers”; Abnet et al., “Serum 25(OH)-Vitamin D Concentration and Risk of Esophageal Squamous Dysplasia”; Fox, “Frank C. Garland, 60, Who Connected Vitamin D Deficiency and Cancer, Dies.”
37. Rowland et al., “Calcium Intake and Prostate Cancer Among African Americans”; Gupta et al., “Vitamin D and Asthma in Children”; Vassallo and Camargo, “Potential Mechanisms for the Hypothesized Link Between Sunshine, Vitamin D, and Food Allergy in Children”; Grady et al., “Hormone Therapy to Prevent Disease and Prolong Life in Postmenopausal Women”; Grady et al., “Cardiovascular Disease Outcomes During 6.8 Years of Hormone Therapy”; Guallar et al., “Postmenopausal Hormone Therapy”; Ravdin et al., “The Decrease in Breast-Cancer Incidence in 2003 in the United States”; Hawkes et al., “Grandmothering, Menopause, and the Evolution of Human Life Histories”; Liu et al., “Systematic Review”; Bhasin et al., “The Effects of Supraphysiologic Doses of Testosterone on Muscle Size and Strength in Normal Men”; Nieminen et al., “Serious Cardiovascular Side Effects of Large Doses of Anabolic Steroids in Weight Lifters.”
38. Waite, “Blackley and the Development of Hay Fever as a Disease of Civilization in the Nineteenth Century.”
39. Strachan, “Hay Fever, Hygiene, and Household Size.”
40. Anyo et al., “Early, Current and Past Pet Ownership”; von Mutius, “99th Dahlem Conference on Infection, Inflammation and Chronic Inflammatory Disorders”; Schaub, Lauener, and von Mutius, “The Many Faces of the Hygiene Hypothesis”; Cooper, “Intestinal Worms and Human Allergy”; Cooper, “Interactions Between Helminth Parasites and Allergy”; Figueiredo et al., “Chronic Intestinal Helminth Infections Are Associated with Immune Hyporesponsiveness and Induction of a Regulatory Network”; Bloomfield et al., “Too Clean, or Not Too Clean”; Sherriff and Golding, “Hygiene Levels in a Contemporary Population Cohort Are Associated with Wheezing and Atopic Eczema in Preschool Infants”; Berdoy, Webster, and Macdonald, “Fatal Attraction in Rats Infected with Toxoplasma Gondii”; Zhang et al., “Toxoplasma gondii Immunoglobulin G Antibodies and Nonfatal Suicidal Self-Directed Violence”; Blaser, Missing Microbes.
41. Barnes, Diseases and Human Evolution.
42. Barnes, Diseases and Human Evolution.
43. Including sickle cell anemia, hemoglobin variants C and E, the Duffy Negative Blood Group, thalassemia syndromes, and the G6PD enzyme defect.
44. Barnes, Diseases and Human Evolution.
45. Barnes, Diseases and Human Evolution.
46. Gire et al., “Genomic Surveillance Elucidates Ebola Virus Origin and Transmission During the 2014 Outbreak”; Vogel, “Genomes Reveal Start of Ebola Outbreak”; Li and Chen, “Evolutionary History of Ebola Virus”; Barnes, Diseases and Human Evolution.
47. Wong, Bundy, and Golden, “The Rate of Ingestion of Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura Eggs in Soil and Its Relationship to Infection in Two Children’s Homes in Jamaica”; Gutiérrez, Diagnostic Pathology of Parasitic Infections; ICDDR, Diarrhoeal Diseases Research; Qian, Nematode Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors; Read and Skorping, “The Evolution of Tissue Migration by Parasitic Nematode Larvae”; Mulcahy et al., “Tissue Migration by Parasitic Helminths—An Immunoevasive Strategy?”
48. Wong, Bundy, and Golden, “The Rate of Ingestion of Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura Eggs in Soil and Its Relationship to Infection in Two Children’s Homes in Jamaica”; Gutiérrez, Diagnostic Pathology of Parasitic Infections; Qian, Nematode Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors; Read and Skorping, “The Evolution of Tissue Migration by Parasitic Nematode Larvae”; Mulcahy et al., “Tissue Migration by Parasitic Helminths—An Immunoevasive Strategy?”
